LB 

1594 

.?S £ — — — 

INDUSTRIAL 
BOOKLETS 



— — i-— 1 — 




A.E.PICKARD 



POITJLTKT 

PSlEASUIE awTpROHT 

GRACE GQOBYEAR. 




ELEMENTARY INDUSTRIAL SERIES 




-S 



tt** nai i i i 




Class _L3i1554l 

Book £e 

Copyright^ 



COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT; 



Digitized by the Internet Archive 
in 2011 with funding from 
The Library of Congress 



http://www.archive.org/details/industrialbookleOOpick 



Industrial Booklets 



BY 



A. E. PICKARD 



Elementary Industrial Series 



Webb Publishing Company 
st. paul, minnesota 



U3tnf 



Copyright, 1916 

by 

Webb Publishing Company 

All rights reserved 

W-l 



3 1916 



P 



'CI.A4386a4 



PREFACE 

"Industrial Booklets" is one of the three books of the 
Elementary Industrial Series for young folk. It has been 
prepared with a view of helping to meet the demand for more 
definite material for the industrial booklet work that is now 
done so generally in elementary grade and rural schools. 
It is conceded that much of the agricultural and industrial 
work should be correlated with the language and composi- 
tion lessons, and at least emphasized, if not taught entirely 
in this manner. 

Of recent years many interesting topics have been dis- 
cussed and booklets shown at the county and state school 
exhibits. Much valuable and original work has been done. 
But teachers and pupils have been handicapped in not having 
at their disposal enough definite reference material. Stu- 
dents cannot be expected to make up their own outlines 
entirely and the teacher often does not have the time to help. 

This little book is really a manual for the language and 
composition classes, then, rather than an industrial book, 
like the other two of the series. It is intended for boys and 
girls in junior high schools, upper grades, and rural schools, 
and may be used for either oral or written work. Many 
more topics are suggested and outlines given than can be 
developed in any one school. There is, therefore, oppor- 
tunity to provide a definite course for several years' booklet 
work, taking a different phase each year, and a choice of 
subjects to meet the local conditions. As a textbook in the 
hands of the pupil it will save time and make the booklet 
work more definite and somewhat uniform, although it is 
not necessary that all members of the class work out the 
same outline. 

Agricultural booklets are now recognized as one of the 
most effective ways of studying agriculture in the rural and 



6 INDUSTRIAL BOOKLETS 

elementary schools. These are written as language work, 
on good paper with pen and ink, and discuss an outline of 
some phase of agriculture. Clippings from magazines, cata- 
logs, or original drawings in ink or water color are used to 
illustrate the booklets. Cover paper, or common drawing 
paper tinted may be used as covers for the booklets. A 
great number of suitable topics might be suggested for this 
work, but each school should select a few that are best 
suited to its own community. 

Not more than one booklet a month should be attempted 
for class work, although others may be made by individual 
students and handed in for extra credit, if the teacher so 
directs. 

Finally, an exhibit of the booklets made during the year, 
and a program in which some of the booklets were read, 
would be an interesting event both to the school and the 
parents. 

The teacher who is not familiar with this kind of work 
will find suggestions in the author's "Rural Education" 
where the industrial booklet idea is discussed from the stand- 
point of the instructor. 

The author acknowledges that he has used freely many 
standard texts and references in the preparation of the out- 
lines, as well as state and national bulletins from departments 
of agriculture. Some of these are suggested in the refer- 
ences at the close of each outline. 

A. E. PICKARD 
July, 1916 



CONTENTS 

Chapter Page 

I Why and How Booklets Are Made 9 

II Outline and Development of a Topic . . : 12 

"Poultry for Pleasure and Profit." 

III Agricultural Booklets 57 

Corn, Rotation of Crops, Common Weeds, Insects, 
Cotton. 

IV Horticulture Booklets 84 

Strawberries, The Orchard, Vegetable Gardens. 

V Animal Husbandry Booklets 99 

Cattle, Hogs, Horses, Birds. 

VI Home Economics Booklets 117 

Flies and Their Control, Household Friends and 
Foes, Bread Baking. 

VII Other Booklets 128 

Wood Preservatives and Substitutes, Good Roads, 
Drainage, Irrigation and Dry Farming. 






INDUSTRIAL BOOKLETS 



CHAPTER I 
WHY AND HOW BOOKLETS ARE MADE. 

There is always a strong desire among boys and girls 
to be able to express freely and accurately in language 
the results of their investigation and thought. 

Have you ever been asked to tell or write a story for your 
language or composition work? Of course, as all other boys 
and girls of these classes have. Such work is the very back- 
bone of this important subject. Some students find this 
part of their training very difficult and sometimes even dis- 
tasteful, because too often no definite directions are given. 

This little book presents a large number of topics that 
treat of the industries of the nation. You are sure to be 
interested in many of them. It will, therefore, be easy for 
you to express your thoughts, either orally or on paper, on 
a topic in which you are interested. You can find out from 
references, or, better still, at first hand in many instances, 
the information needed to discuss the outlines. You can 
probably add to some of the outlines, thus making your work 
more original. After you have followed some of those given, 
you will be ready to make your own outlines for the other 
topics suggested under each heading. 

Bulletins on the various topics may be obtained by writ- 
ing the Department of Agriculture of your own and neigh- 
boring states, as well as at Washington, D. C. Writing for 
these will be good practice for you in your composition class, 
and you may obtain free a good many valuable references 
for your work. 



10 INDUSTRIAL BOOKLETS 

Industrial booklets may be made very attractive. If 
special covers and fillers are not available for this work, use 
your originality and ability to do industrial work and make 
your own booklet. Cover paper, tinted cardboard, white 
cardboard with original design in ink or water colors, or 
even heavy wall paper are suggestive for the covers. These 
may open either way, but are usually made tablet fashion. 
The cover may be one or two pieces and tied through the 
filler at the top with ribbon or some other material that will 
be attractive. Boys may prefer a wide colored shoe string. 
The paper used for the filler may be ruled or unruled; but, 
as pictures are often pasted on the sheets, the unruled will 
be neater. Eight and one half by eleven inches is a conven- 
ient size for the filler and the covers should extend about 
a half inch on each side except the top. If the school does 
not possess a punch, holes may be made in the filler and 
cover, after the booklet has been finished, with a sharp 
pocket knife or even a twenty penny nail, and the fastener 
inserted. 

Pen and ink should always be used and the greatest care 
taken in your writing. It is really worth while to take time 
enough to turn out a finished product — something of which 
you will be proud in later years. So much of your language 
work is of a temporary nature that you, perhaps, get careless. 
Use but one side of the paper, unless directed to do otherwise, 
as a more pleasing looking booklet will be obtained. 

The illustrations should be original whenever it is pos- 
sible. Ink, charcoal, and water colors, as well as crayola 
may be used. Pictures may be obtained from catalogs 
and other sources and pasted on the paper as the lesson is 
being prepared. They should not be put on, however, until 
the subject matter has been criticised by the teacher and 
carefully corrected by the student, as your booklet must be 
the permanent filing place for only your best work in English. 
The sheets may be filed away as finished after each lesson, 



WHY AND HOW BOOKLETS ARE MADE 



11 



or put in some convenient place, and filed when complete, 
as seems best to the teacher. 

A suggestive booklet has been worked out for your 
guidance. Study it carefully, and note the outline from 
which it was written. Poultry was selected as the topic on 
account of its universal interest. It is hoped that students 
may become sufficiently interested in poultry raising to 
attempt at least one branch of it, and keep records of the 
business done, as suggested in another little book of this 
series — "Industrial Work for Boys." 



F@WH1Y 

Pleasure an<f Profit 

GRACE GOODYEAR. 




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Figure 1. Suggestive cover design and page of booklet on poultry. 



CHAPTER II 
POULTRY FOR PLEASURE AND PROFIT 

OUTLINE AND DEVELOPMENT OF A TOPIC 

1. The Poultry Industry — 

(1) Distribution — All parts of the world. 

(2) Value — Over half a billion dollars a year in U. S. 

(3) Profitable, if properly handled. 

2. Poultry Includes — 

(1) Fowls — Most important. 

(2) Turkeys — Bring highest prices. 

(3) Ducks and geese — Foragers. 

(4) Other poultry — Not important commercially. 

3. Origin of Domesticated Poultry — 

(1) Fowls — Wild jungle fowl of India. 

(2) Turkeys — From wild turkey of America. 

(3) Ducks and geese — Native to America and Europe. 

4. Housing of Poultry — 

(1) Selection of site — Dry ground, southern exposure. 

(2) Furnishings movable — Cleaned easily. 

(3) Roosts comfortable — Two by fours, no cracks. 

(4) Curtains — For cold weather. 

(5) Ventilation — Muslin windows, no drafts. 

(6) Floor — Wooden better than cement. 

(7) Number together — Generally not over fifty. 

(8) Sanitation — Clean, whitewashed, no vermin. 

(9) Nests — Partly hidden, comfortable. 

5. Breeding Poultry — 

(1) Pure bred stock most profitable. 

(2) Common stock improved — 

(a) By buying standard bred fowls. 

(b) By buying pure bred eggs. 

12 



POULTRY FOR PLEASURE AND PROFIT 13 

(c) By selecting the best stock for mating. 

(3) Care of eggs for hatching — Must be fresh. 

(4) Hatching the eggs — 

(a) With hens — In small flocks. 

(b) Incubators — Used for large flocks. 

>. Feeds and Feeding — 

(1) Grain feeds — 

(a) Corn — One third of feed for growing stock, 

nearly all corn for fattening. 

(b) Wheat — Screenings, use as scratch feed. 

(c) Oats — Hulled, good for laying hens. 

(d) Barley — Good for fattening. 

(e) Buckwheat and millet — Mixed with other feed. 

(f) Cracked mixtures — Good for scratch feed. 

(2) Green feeds — For chickens not on range — 

(a) Sprouted grains — Oats, barley, etc. 

(b) Clover, alfalfa. 

(c) Roots — Mangels, turnips, beets and cabbage. 

(3) Grit and shells— 

(a) Lime — For laying hens. 

(b) Coarse sand and gravel. 

(c) Ground and crushed rock. 

(d) Oyster and other shells. 

(4) Meat feeds— 

(a) Beef scraps, bits from the table, etc. 

(5) Wet and dry feeding — 

(a) Wet mash at noon — Ground corn and oats, bran, 

shorts. 

(b) Dry mash in self-feeding hopper, same mixture. 

(6) Balanced diet — Work out a balanced ration. 

7. Diseases of Poultry — 
(1) Diseases — 

(a) Gapes — Worms in the windpipe. 



14 INDUSTRIAL BOOKLETS 

(b) Cholera — Germ disease, contagious. 

(c) Roup — Cold, appears in winter and spring. 

(2) Pests— 

(a) Mites — Appear in warm weather, filthy house. 

(b) Lice — Body and head. 

(3) Remedies and preventives — 

(a) Disinfectant in water and feed. 

(b) Patent remedies applied with feather. 

(c) Kerosene on roosts. 

(d) Fumigate with sulphur. 

(e) Boxes for dust baths. 

8. Eggs— 

(1) Gathered daily and kept clean. 

(2) Market often in warm weather. 

(3) Laws for protecting the public. 

(4) Records — Get sheets from experiment station. 

(5) Sell only uniform size. 

9. Marketing — ■ 

(1) Eggs — See above. 

(2) Poultry— 

(a) Alive — Shipped in crates. 

(b) Dressed — Local and city markets. 

(c) Breeds best adapted. 

10. Standard Bred Poultry— 

(1) Term means pure bred stock. 

(2) American Poultry Association determines standards. 

(3) Poultry shows and exhibitions. 

11. Meat Breeds— 

(1) Brahmas — Light and dark — 

(a) Weight — Nine to twelve pounds. 

(b) Meat rather coarse. 

(2) Cochins — Black, White and Partridge — 

(a) Weight — nearly as large as Brahmas. 

(b) Feathered legs. 



POULTRY FOR PLEASURE AND PROFIT 15 

(3) Langshans — Black and White — 

(a) Smaller and more active than the others. 

12. Egg Breeds— 

(1) Leghorn — Several varieties, Single and Rose-comb — 

(a) Native of Italy. 

(b) Active — Great layers, hard to fatten. 

(2) Minorca — Black, White, Single and Rose-comb — 

(a) Native island of Minorca. 

(b) Large eggs. 

(3) Hamburgs — Several varieties — 

(a) Active — Small eggs. 

(b) Native of Germany. 

(4) Andalusians — Bluish black color — 
(a) Not so common as the others. 

13. General Purpose Breeds — 

(1) Plymouth Rock — A great favorite — 

(a) Originated in Massachusetts. 

(b) Barred, White, Buff, Partridge, Silver-penciled. 

(c) All single combs. 

(2) Wyandotte — A little smaller than the Rocks — 

(a) American breed. 

(b) White, Silver-laced, Golden, Buff, Black, Part- 

ridge, and Silver-penciled. 

(3) Orpington — Large, plump chicken — 

(a) English breed. 

(b) White, Black, Buff, Jubilee. 

(4) Rhode Island Red — Meat excellent flavor — 

(a) Cross from all known varieties. 

(b) Rose and single comb varieties. 

(5) Other breeds for general purpose — 

(a) Java — Black and Mottled. 

(b) Dominique — Resemble Plymouth Rock. 

(c) Dorking — White, Silver Gray, Colored. 



16 INDUSTRIAL BOOKLETS 

(d) Houdan — French breed, crest on head. 

(e) Cornish — Meat excellent flavor. 

14. Fancy Breeds — 

(1) Ornamental, not practical. 

(2) Kinds — Game, Polish, Sultan, Silky, Bantam. 

15. Ducks — 

(1) Pekin — Perhaps the most popular — 

(a) Originated in China. 

(b) Good for meat and eggs. 

(2) Rouen — Resembles the wild mallard — 

(a) Originated in England. 

(b) General purpose. 

(3) Aylesbury — Larger than Pekin — 

(a) Originated in England. 

(b) Meat variety chiefly. 

(4) Indian Runner — Small, erect posture — 

(a) Called Leghorn of the duck family. 

(b) Great egg producer. 

(5) Black Cayuga — Dark color — 

(a) Originated in America. 

(b) General purpose. 

(6) Muscovy — Hiss, rather than quack — 

(a) Originated in South America. 

(b) Do not resemble other breeds. 

(c) Meat delicious in flavor. 

(d) Male very large, female small. 

(e) Fine layers, and good sitters. 

16. Geese — 

(1) Toulouse — Very large, gray, have paunch. 

(2) Embden — White, develop early. 

(3) African — Finer grained flesh than others. 

(4) Chinese — Small, not profitable for farm. 



POULTRY FOR PLEASURE AND PROFIT 17 

17. Turkeys— 

(1) Origin — All from American wild turkey. 

(2) Breeds— 

(a) Bronze — Largest, most popular. 

(b) Narragansett — Gray, quiet. 

(c) White Holland — Lays well, quiet. 

(d) Others — Buff, Slate, Black, Bourbon Red. 

REFERENCES 

Progressive Poultry Culture by Brigham, Productive Poultry 
Husbandry by Lewis, Principles and Practice of Poultry Culture by 
Robinson, Farm Poultry by Watson, and Poultry Production by 
Lippincott. 

THE POULTRY INDUSTRY 

That poultry raising has become one of the leading 
industries of the country is not recognized by the average 
person, because poultry is a "side-issue" on most farms. 
One of the recent year books of the Department of Agricul- 
ture states that over twenty billion eggs are produced annu- 
ally. The total value of poultry products in the United 
States is over one half of a billion dollars, and they rank 
next to cattle and horses in live stock. This is more than the 
annual output of all our precious metals and coal and iron. 

There is a large demand for eggs in the industries, as 
creameries, candy making establishments, bakeries, etc., and 
yet they are more and more taking the place of meat on the 
table, as that food becomes higher in price. At the time 
of the recent reduction in the tariff it was predicted that 
eggs would be shipped into the United States from other 
countries, especially China, and that the markets would be 
glutted; but the average demand for domestic eggs continues 
to be strong and prices have been good. 

2— 



18 INDUSTRIAL BOOKLETS 

A small amount of capital is needed to establish a poultry- 
business. Another advantage is the small area needed for 
poultry raising. When a small or large flock is kept, the 
profit may often be increased by adding standard bred stock 
so that sales of breeding stock and eggs for hatching can be 
made at good prices. A reputation must be made by exhib- 
iting and advertising, and, although the profit is often 
very large when the trade is developed, for the first season, 
at least, it must be obtained principally from the sale of 
table poultry and eggs. If the flock is kept in town and 
the feed has to be purchased, a greater proportionate capital 
will be required than if it can be kept on a farm where 
it can be given range, and can feed largely on what would 
otherwise be wasted. The value of such a flock in destroy- 
ing insects on the farm can hardly be overestimated. 
Poultry raising for meat products will require more space 
and also more capital, as it will be necessary to use artificial 
incubation. The prospective poultryman should decide 
which branch of the industry he prefers and emphasize that 
in order to make it a success. 

Poultry includes fowls, turkeys, ducks, geese, pheasants, 
pigeons, guinea and pea-fowl. Fowls are the most import- 
ant, but duck raising is a very important industry in 
some sections of the country, not alone for meat but for 
eggs. Turkeys bring the highest prices and the demand 
usually exceeds the supply. Ducks and geese are foragers 
and, if allowed free range, will practically pick their own 
living in summer except during the early growth and fat- 
tening periods. Pigeon, or squab, raising may be made 
profitable near the larger centers where there is a demand 
for these birds, but the industry is not general as yet. 
Other fowls are not important commercially. 

ORIGIN 

All our fowls are said to have originated from the wild 
jungle fowl of India. Because poultrymen have studied their 



POULTRY FOR PLEASURE AND PROFIT 



19 



breeding, a great number of different varieties has been pro- 
duced. There are over one hundred in this country alone. 
A standard variety is one recognized by the American 
Poultry Association. Our turkeys have all originated from 
the American turkey which is almost extinct. All varieties 
of ducks, except the muscovy, are believed by some author- 
ities to be descended from the wild mallard. Most of our 
domestic ducks originated in Europe, although China is the 
greatest duck producing nation in the world. The muscovy 
duck is distinct from the others and is thought to have 
originated from a wild water fowl in Peru. With the excep- 
tion of the Canadian wild goose, which is now domesticated, 
our geese have all come from Europe and Asia. 

HOUSING 

The housing of poultry is a subject for careful considera- 
tion for the prospective poultryman. Even the small flock 
of the average homestead would do much better if better 
provision were made for keeping the poultry dry and healthy. 
If possible, select a sandy knoll for the house and yards. If 




Figure 2. Concrete poultry house. 



20 



INDUSTRIAL BOOKLETS 



these must be located on heavy soil, it should be thoroughly 
underdrained, and kept as porous as possible. While these 
conditions are ideal, it is possible, of course, to raise poultry 
successfully under other conditions. 

Poultry authorities usually give at least three things to 
be considered in arranging the houses and yards — first and 
foremost, the health of poultry; second, freedom from vermin 
and other enemies such as rats and other animals; and third, 
convenient arrangement of buildings and yards. 

The health of the poultry cannot be safeguarded in a 
damp, dark house. Windows should be arranged along the 
south and east sides so that the morning and noonday sun 
is available. This is especially important for the winter 
months when the fowls are indoors a great deal. Wooden 
floors are better than cement, as they are warmer. Hens 
will not lay, if their feet are allowed to get cold. The floor, 
of whatever it may be made, should be covered with litter, 
which, if sufficient, helps to remove the objection to cement. 
The floor should be high enough from the ground to allow a 
circulation of air underneath. Protection from winter blasts 
may be secured by banking or with tar paper. A southern 




Figure 3. Wooden poultry house. 



POULTRY FOR PLEASURE AND PROFIT 



21 



exposure is always best for the yards, as it is warmer in 
winter and dryer in the early spring. The yards should be 
shaded during the warm summer months, especially when 
fowls do not have free range. Fruit trees and shrubs make 
good shade and attract numerous insects which will afford 
excellent animal food for the poultry. 

Poultry house furnishings should all be movable so they 
may easily be taken out in the sun and thoroughly cleaned 
and disinfected. 

The roosts should be comfortable. Small, round poles 

to which the fowls 
must cling all night 
long are not con- 
ducive to rest atid 
comfort. Two-by- 
fours, planed 
smooth, to prevent 
hiding places for 
vermin, and set on 
edge, make good 
roosts. They should 
not be placed too 
close together. Cur- 
tains of some cheap 
material may be 
suspended from the 
ceiling just outside the roosts, so they may be dropped 
down over night during severe weather. There is a ten- 
dency, however, to abandon these. If used, they should be 
removed in the early spring and kept clean and free from 
pests. Special ventilators for cold weather must be pro- 
vided as well as muslin over the open windows. It is diffi- 
cult to ventilate, even with ventilators, without heat. A 
straw loft and an open-front scratching-shed are, perhaps, 
the best solution of this problem. It is as necessary to 




Figure 4. Showing dropping board and lifted roosts. 



22 INDUSTRIAL BOOKLETS 

provide plenty of fresh air for poultry as for children, if 
they are to be healthy. 

Vermin may be exterminated by painting the roosts and 
nests with some coal tar product. The interior of the build- 
ing should be whitewashed at regular intervals and the 
roosts and nests kept clean and disinfected. Lice from the 
body of the fowl may be best removed by the thorough 
application of a good insect powder. Kerosene dips are 
dangerous and likely to injure the fowl or chick. It is 
especially important to keep lice from the chicks. Rats, 
skunks and other enemies may be prevented from entering 
the house, if close wire netting is placed below the sills or 
under the floor at the time of construction. Crows and 
hawks can be kept from chicks by covering the yards with 
woven wire. Poisons are sometimes employed in ridding 
poultry houses of animals, but it is dangerous to the poul- 
try and must be used with great care. 

Convenience of arrangement of houses and yards is most 
important, if more than a very small flock is maintained. 
While the care of poultry is not heavy work, it is regular 
work and constant attention is necessary. Labor saving 
devices and arrangement of furnishings and doors, so that 
steps may be saved in caring for the poultry are essential. 
Where more than one house and yard are necessary, they 
should be so arranged that the caretaker may pass from one 
to another conveniently. A door at each end of each house 
is suggested, as admittance to the houses without passing 
through the yards will save time. A door at the west, how- 
ever, subjects the building to greater exposure. 

In the construction of poultry houses several things must 
be considered. The house must be warm, light, well venti- 
lated. As many as five hundred fowls are kept in one 
undivided house on some of the large egg farms, but usually 
better results are obtained where fewer are kept together. 
Where eggs are the principal requirement, not less than 



POULTRY FOR PLEASURE AND PROFIT 



23 



fifty should be kept in one house or compartment, if econ- 
omy of labor is considered. For breeding purposes not more 
than twelve should be housed in one house or compartment. 
The number of square feet of floor space to be allowed each 
fowl in the house depends considerably on the size of the 
house or compartment. The larger the compartment, the 
less the number of square feet of floor space that each fowl 
must be allowed, because in a larger house the distances 
from one extremity to the other are greater and afford more 
opportunity for exercise. At least six square feet per fowl 




Figure 5. Poultry house with yards. 



in a small house and four in a large house should be allowed. 
For housing breeding pens of fowls, long houses are divided 
into compartments by partitions. The materials to be used 
will depend upon the locality. What is expensive in one 
place may be relatively cheap in another. The size of the 
building will depend not only upon the number of fowls to 
be housed in it, but also upon the climatic conditions. A 
larger house is needed in cold latitudes where the poultry 
must remain indoors a great deal. Watson, in his "Farm 
Poultry" gives an excellent description of how to construct 
poultry houses. He advises a permanent foundation of 



24 



INDUSTRIAL BOOKLETS 



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Scratch Shed 



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Figure 6. 



Plan of poultry house. Nests in scratching shed are not used 
in cold weather. 



brick, stone or cement. Free circulation of air under the 
floor should be provided by openings in the foundation. 
This will prevent what is known as "dry rot." Narrow 
trenches should be dug below the frost line, and lined with 
old boards to hold cobblestones, gravel and cement. The 
latter may be made thin enough to pour over the stones. 
The wall should be built high enough above ground to keep 
the floor from becoming damp. 

The walls of the poultry house may be solid or hollow, 
as desired. The hollow wall is desirable for colder lati- 
tudes, as the dead air space keeps out the cold. It also 
prevents frost from accumulating on the inside of the walls, 
as in the case of the solid walls. On the other hand, hollow 
walls prevent the warming of houses by the sun in winter, 
although they are cooler in hot weather. Solid walls may 
be built of one or two thicknesses of boards. Rough lum- 
ber may be used, if necessary, for economy; but matched 
lumber is better. These boards should be put on up and 
down rather than sidewise, as they can easily be fastened 



POULTRY FOR PLEASURE AND PROFIT 25 

to the sill on the foundation and the plate at the top. The 
sill may be made of a two-by-six scantling and the plate 
of a two-by-four. If only one thickness of lumber is used, 
the cracks should be well covered with battens of narrow 
strips of board or with lath. Heavy building paper or tar 
paper may be used to line the walls of a poultry house, but 
it is usually regarded better to place this material on the 
outside of the boarding, between that and the siding. If 
used inside the wall, it is likely to become torn and it does 
not furnish so good a surface for whitewashing as wood. 
If double boards are to be used for the solid walls, the others 
are fastened on the inside over the paper. The hollow wall 
is built in the same manner as the solid except that the inner 
boards are fastened to the other side of the plate and to a 
strip on the sill leaving a two or three-inch dead air space 
between the two layers of boards. The cost is about the 
same as for a double thickness of solid walls. 

Roofs are made of various kinds of building material, 
but wood is most popular. Metal roofs have not been 
favorably received by poultry keepers, but good prepared 
roofings are used on a majority of poultry houses in this 
country, not only on the roofs, but on the sides. These 
roofings are comparatively inexpensive, are reasonably dur- 
able and are easily put on. The shed roof or "lean-to" is 
commonly used and is cheaper than the gable roof. Build- 
ing paper should be carefully laid to exclude all drafts, as 
poultry often take cold while on the roosts. 
BREEDING 

Poultry breeding has long since become a scientific indus- 
try in America. The tremendous commercial industry that 
has been built up has been fostered and stimulated by the 
poultry fanciers, who have developed the old breeds and 
originated' the new. As with all other animals, it is most 
profitable to keep only pure bred stock. Such poultry cost 
no more to keep and are more productive and salable. 



26 



INDUSTRIAL BOOKLETS 



The common "scrub" stock can easily be improved. 
While it may be desirable to start with pure bred poultry, 
it is not necessary to pay from ten to twenty-five dollars for 
a setting of fancy eggs. It is better business policy to buy 
some good, but medium priced, stock and build one's own 
flock. This may be done by buying standard bred males 
or just a hen and selecting only the best stock for mating. 
A few pure bred hens from which the eggs are selected will 
soon produce enough standard stock to enable the owner 
to dispose of the others and keep only the pure bred. 

Eggs for hatching should be selected and carefully han- 
dled until used. Fresh eggs not more than a week old are 
necessary for best results. Eggs laid in the spring are more 
likely to be fertile, as this is the natural mating season. 
The stock should be carefully selected and the eggs for hatch- 
ing taken only from the breeding pens. The hens must be 
fed special rations of grain, green food and meat scraps for 
best results. Special egg carriers now make it possible to 
ship sittings long distances, but they are not likely to be as 
good as those ob- 
tained nearby that 
have not been shak- 
en up in transit. This 
is the experience of 
almost every one who 
has purchased im- 
ported stock. 

Hatching is done 
by natural and by 
artificial means. The 
former is still used 
largely for fancy 
stock and by small 
raisers whose flock 

HOPS Tint PYPPPd nnP Figure 7. A modern incubator. 

UUCO 11UU CAOeeU UlltJ Courtesy Capital Incubator Co. 





• " '' ' * % " : Kftf 






-! 


! 8m Hi 
















• 



POULTRY FOR PLEASURE AND PROFIT 



21 



hundred fowls. Artificial hatching by means of incubators 
is the only practical way to produce large flocks. The his- 
tory of artificial incubation is interesting. The ancients are 
said to have made use of it, and the remains of ovens used 
for hatching are still seen in some parts of Egypt. During the 
last twenty-five years many different incubators have ap- 
peared. A closer study of the natural methods of incuba- 
tion has enabled the inventors to produce a more perfect 
machine. 

Incubators vary in size from capacity for fifty eggs to 
several thousand. The latter are special machines for large 
poultry ranches. Some are heated with hot air and some 
with hot water, but all are built on the general principle of 
having a circulation of warm air above the eggs causing 
them to maintain a temperature of from one hundred to 
one hundred and three degrees Fahrenheit, as in natural 
incubation. One of the best places to operate the incu- 
bator is in a dry, well ventilated cellar. One of the principal 
points for consideration is even temperature, and' this the 
cellar has. 

An amateur should study the directions that go with 
the incubator before attempting to run it. After each 
hatching the machine should be thoroughly cleaned and 
given a sun bath. The parts should be inspected and the 
lamp kept clean. While advertisements often state how 
simply an incubator may be operated, it must be remembered 

that constant 
watchfulness and 
patience are neces- 
sary to success. A 
machine will not 
run itself. The lamp 
must be kept clean 
and filled at regular 

Indoor brooder. j. i q 

Courtesy Capital Incubator Co. 1 n t C T V a 1 S, preter- 




Figure 



28 



INDUSTRIAL BOOKLETS 




Figure 9. 



Outdoor brooder. 

Courtesy Capital Incubator Co. 



ably once a day. No drafts 
must be allowed to interfere 
with a steady flame. The 
temperature may be kept 
constant by using the ther- 
mometer above the eggs as 
a guide. These readings 
should be taken twice a day. 
Turning the eggs is very 
necessary both to change 
the position of the germ 
and to supply the growing 
embryo with sufficient oxy- 
gen. The following rule for 
turning is from ' 'Produc- 
tive Poultry Husbandry" by Lewis: "Begin turning on the 
evening of the third day, continue this process each day, 
morning and evening, until the evening of the eighteenth 
or nineteenth day, or until the eggs show signs of pipping. 
Then prepare the machine for hatching, and do not remove 
the tray for any purpose." Cooling the eggs is also neces- 
sary. During the first part of incubation, the time taken 
for turning the eggs will be sufficient for cooling them, but 
later more time should be given. The time should always 
be governed by the temperature of the surrounding air and 
at no time should they be copied long enough so that they 
are not warm to the touch. 

Brooders are necessary where incubators are used, un- 
less a very warm place is otherwise provided for the young 
birds. Homemade brooders are sometimes satisfactory, but 
in view of the fact that they call for a proper distribution 
of heat and provision for a forced ventilation with pure 
warmed air, a good brooder is often more expensive to make 
at home than it is to buy in the open market. If early 
chicks are not an object, there is not the necessity for the 



POULTRY FOR PLEASURE AND PROFIT 29 

brooder there otherwise would be, and the homemade variety 
might serve the purpose later in the season. Where hatch- 
ing is done on a large scale, brooder houses are constructed. 
These may be either permanent or portable. Some poultry 
houses provide for brooders at the back of the breeding 
pens; but, if any germs of disease should be about the 
poultry house, the chicks would fall an easy prey to them. 
It would be safer, therefore, to keep them apart. Chickens 
should be transferred from the incubator to the brooder as 
quickly as possible to prevent chilling, but should not be 
taken from the incubator until at least 24 hours old. Start 
the brooder at a temperature of about ninety-five degrees 
and gradually lower it to eighty-five at about the second 
week. 

FEEDS AND FEEDING 

The proper feeding of poultry is one of the requisites 
for success in this industry. Chicks need particular 
attention and special directions for feeding as found in 
standard poultry books should be followed. Ducks and 
geese need more mash and soft feeds than fowls and 
turkeys. Young poultry should be fed several times daily. 
Three times is sufficient for others. Feeds may be classified 
as grains, green feeds, grit, meat feeds, and mashes. 

Grains are used chiefly as scratch feeds and should be 
fed in the morning in a deep litter so that the hens will get 
plenty of exercise. Corn may also be fed at night in cold 
weather as it produces more heat than the other feeds. 
Corn should constitute about one third of the feed for grow- 
ing stock and nearly all for fattening. Good wheat screenings 
are good for laying hens. Oats are excellent for poultry 
provided they are heavy enough to indicate that they are 
well filled out. Mere husks are not satisfactory. Oats may 
also be sprouted to furnish green food during the winter. 
Homemade sprouters may be used by applying heat to 



30 INDUSTRIAL BOOKLETS 

layers of grain between moist cloths or boxes. Barley is 
good fattening feed and is often fed instead of or with corn. 
Some poultry have to learn to eat it. Buckwheat, millet 
and other seeds are sometimes mixed in the scratch feed. 
They are relished and give variety to the grain diet. 
Cracked corn and other grains are mixed for scratch feed. 

Green feeds are necessary for fowls not on range and 
very important as part of the winter diet. Sprouted oats 
have already been mentioned. Barley is sometimes pre- 
pared in the same manner. Clover, if well cured, makes 
good feed, especially if steamed. Alfalfa will be eaten and 
relished by poultry, and should be provided for winter use. 
It may be cut up and fed with the mashes, if desired. Roots 
such as mangels, turnips, beets, cabbage, etc., make very 
good green food for winter use. These may be suspended 
from cords in the pens and the fowls will pick them as 
needed. 

Grit and shells should be available at all times. Dur- 
ing the summer enough can probably be picked up on the 
range, but in cold weather some form of grit must be pro- 
vided. There should be lime for laying hens, coarse sand 
and gravel for all, if proper digestion is to take place. Com- 
mercial forms of grit, such as crushed and ground rock, 
oyster and other shells may be obtained. 

Animal food of some kind is necessary for laying poultry. 
Scraps can usually be secured at the meat market at reason- 
able prices in the winter when they can be saved for several 
days without spoiling. Meat scraps from the table should 
be utilized in this way. 

Wet and dry mashes form an important part of the 
rations. A good mixture for the wet mash is ground corn 
and oats, bran and shorts in about equal proportions. This 
should be thoroughly moistened but not made too soft. It 
should form the noon meal together with the green feeds 



POULTRY FOR PLEASURE AND PROFIT 



31 



^m -j * *j- - *i 



Figure 10. Homemade self-feeders and drinking fountain. 

and meat scraps. A dry mash of the same mixture should 
be kept constantly before the fowls in self -feeding hoppers. 
These hoppers may be made or purchased and hung on the 
walls just low enough for all to reach. 

Clean, pure water must be kept where the poultry can 
get it at all times. Water may be kept from freezing in 
winter and cool in summer by putting a can inside a box and 
insulating it by means of excelsior or some other material. 
Such drinking fountains are convenient and sanitary, and 
may be purchased, if not homemade. 

Balanced rations are as necessary to produce good layers 
as they are to insure good milk production. Many rations 
have been carefully worked out by experiment stations and 
practical poultrymen. The nourishing parts of the food 
called nutrients are protein, carbohydrates and fat. The 
first is the great tissue builder, while the other two produce 
the heat and energy. A good ration must not only produce 
sufficient nutrients, but it must have them in the right pro- 
portion. This proportion of the nutrients in a ration is 
called the nutritive ratio, and is expressed in numbers. The 
protein is taken as one and is compared with the carbohy- 
drates and fats combined. For example, a ration of twenty- 
five pounds of protein and seventy-five pounds of carbo- 



32 INDUSTRIAL BOOKLETS 

hydrates and fats would have a nutritive ratio of one to three. 
It can easily be seen that, if a ration contains more of one 
of the nutrients than necessary for the maintenance of the 
body and the production of eggs, the extra nutrient would 
be wasted. That is, part of the feed is wasted. This is 
exactly why a balanced ration, or one that contains just the 
right proportion of nutrients to meet the needs of the body 
and to produce the eggs of the fowl, is both necessary and 
economical. It is also evident that the poultryman must 
have a knowledge of the feeding value of the feeds used in 
order to intelligently make up a balanced ration. Ordi- 
nary poultry raisers would do well to follow well estab- 
lished rations, rather than attempt to make their own. 
The following are standard laying rations: 

Dry Mash Mixture 

Wheat bran 20 lbs. 

Wheat middlings 20 lbs. 

Ground oats 20 lbs. 

Cornmeal 10 lbs. 

Gluten meal 10 lbs. 

Meat scraps 10 lbs. 

Alfalfa ....10 lbs. 

Total 100 lbs. Nutritive ratio, 1 : 3.02 

Scratch Feed Ration 

Wheat 10 lbs. 

Oats (clipped) 10 lbs. 

Total 20 lbs. Nutritive ratio, 1 : 6.6 

Heavy Meal, or Night Ration 

Cracked corn 20 lbs. 

Wheat 10 lbs. 

Oats (clipped) 10 lbs. 

Buckwheat 10 lbs. 

Total 50 lbs. Nutritive ratio, 1 : 7.8 



POULTRY FOR PLEASURE AND PROFIT 33 

The above rations arc most suitable for the Mediterran- 
ean type. They are too fattening for the Asiatics, or, pos- 
sibly, even for the dual purpose fowls. 

POULTRY DISEASES AND PESTS 

"An ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure" is 
especially applicable to poultry raising. Strong vitality in 
the flock and absolute cleanliness on the part of the care- 
takers are the best prevention of disease. There should 
be a distinction between diseased poultry and sick poultry. 
In the former case it is seldom advisable to attempt a cure. 
The value of the fowl is not worth the risk to the rest of the 
flock, except in cases of very valuable stock. In this case 
the diseased birds must be segregated and treated. Sick 
fowls should receive prompt attention, and every poultryman 
would do well to know the symptoms of common ailments 
and the anatomy of the fowl and the properties of medicine 
as well as its application. 

Some of the common diseases of poultry are as follows: 
Gapes, or worms in the windpipe; other respiratory troubles 
as roup, catarrh, bronchitis, influenza, and pneumonia; 
diseases of the digestive tract, as inflamed crop, stomach 
inflammation, indigestion, constipation and diarrhoea; 
nervous troubles, as heat prostration, and apoplexy; infec- 
tious diseases, as cholera, diphtheria and tuberculosis; dis- 
eases of the liver and reproductive organs, chicken pox, etc. 
The chief value of knowing the symptoms of these common 
diseases is that they may be prevented in other fowls. A 
thorough examination of the fowl will make the poultryman 
familiar with the action of the diseases. Young chickens are 
often subject to white diarrhoea and weak leg. Diarrhoea 
is a germ disease and should be treated accordingly. Weak 
leg may be caused by strong feed and too close confinement. 

A few poultry medicines should be kept on hand in a 
special cabinet. Powdered catechu is used for diarrhoea. It 



34 INDUSTRIAL BOOKLETS 

may also be obtained in the liquid form. Castor oil is 
one of the best remedies for the early stages of diarrhoea, 
as well as for crop disorders. Give a teaspoonful to each 
fowl twice, with three days between the doses. Epsom 
salts may be fed in soft mashes. Dissolve a heaping table- 
spoonful of the salts in each pint of water required to mix 
the mash crumbly, not wet. Cottonseed oil is effective 
for intestinal troubles and for hens that are egg bound. 

Poultry pests are numerous and annoying, but they can 
be exterminated. There are dozens of different forms of 
parasites that may destroy young poultry, prevent adults 
from reaching their proper size and check the egg production 
of layers. Pests are, therefore, very important from an 
economic standpoint and must be given careful attention. 
Several forms of mites are common. They usually remain in 
cracks in the roosts and nests during the day and suck the 
blood of the poultry at night. Common kerosene applied to 
these fixtures will rid them of this parasite. Another form 
of mite burrows into the leg of the fowl causing the familiar 
"scaly leg." This may be cured by first washing the legs in 
kerosene, then appljdng medicated vaseline every day until 
cured. Head and body lice are the most common poultry 
pests. A dust bath is a good preventive. Kerosene appli- 
cations are dangerous. A good powder is advisable. Lewis 
gives the following formula as effective, and it is simply made : 
"Take three parts of gasoline and one part of crude carbolic 
acid, ninety to ninty-five per - cent strength. Mix these 
together, and stir in gradually enough plaster of Paris to 
absorb all the moisture, which will usually be about four 
quarts of plaster to one quart of liquid." This powder should 
be applied to the head and body of the fowl. Mosquitoes 
sometimes attack the combs and faces of poultry not only 
causing a loss of blood, but making favorable conditions for 
infection, such as chicken pox. Roundworms and tapeworms 
are often present in the intestines, thus weakening the vitality 



POULTRY FOR PLEASURE AND PROFIT 



of the host. Drugs to stupefy the parasites and castor oil to 
expel them is the treatment. 

EGG PRODUCTION 

The value of the eggs of poultry greatly exceeds the 
value of the poultry. Many breeds are maintained almost 
entirely for their egg production. This production probably 
depends upon the conformation of the fowl, that is, whether 
or not it is an egg type, but also upon the nutritive value of 
the rations as already explained. Authorities seem to differ 

as to what extent 
type has to do with 
egg production, as 
individual fowls of 
almost all types have 
been good producers. 
Since the egg is 
built up only from 
the food digested, a 
knowledge of the egg 
composition will en- 
able one to feed more 
intelligently. The 
shell is to protect 
the soft parts of the 
egg and is produced 
from the grit and 
other mineral matter eaten. Under the shell are two tough 
membranes, one adhering to the shell and the other to the 
outer membrane. Between these at the large end of the egg 
is the air sac. This air space enlarges during incubation and 
gives the chick more room for his activities in getting out of 
the shell. The white of the egg is almost pure albumin and 
is made from the protein in the food. Its use is protection 
to the germ, acting as a cushion to prevent shocks. It also 




Figure 11. Different types and sizes of eggs. 



36 INDUSTRIAL BOOKLETS 

furnishes material for the development of the chick. The 
yolk is the most important part of the egg, since it contains 
the germ, or embryo, and also its nourishment. It is man- 
ufactured from all the food elements — protein, carbohy- 
drates, minerals and fats. 

Egg production has been a matter of evolution both in 
breeding and feeding. The original wild fowl laid only 
enough eggs for one sitting, and it is only the ingenuity of 
man that has made a commercial machine of a modern hen. 
Even yet the average hen produces only seventy-five eggs a 
year, although some hens have laid more than three times 
that number. The Cornell Experiment Station produced 
a White Leghorn that laid two hundred and fifty-seven eggs 
in one year, weighing nearly twenty-nine pounds, or exactly 
nine times the weight of the hen. The net profit was five 
dollars and six cents, — more profitable than the average 
acre of wheat or cow from the dairy herd. The complete 
record is worth studying. 

Weight of hen, lbs 3.2 

Pounds of feed consumed 110.0 

Eggs laid in one year 257. 

Weight of eggs laid, lbs 28.8 

Cost of feed ' $1.66 

Labor, and interest on inv 1.00 

Egg value at 35c. a doz 7.43 

Value of manure 29 

Total credit $7.72 

Total debit 2.66 

Net profit $5.06 

This statement shows the tremendous possibilities when 
scientific methods are followed. 

Eggs should be gathered daily and kept clean and fresh. 
It is necessary to market them often in warm weather. 



POULTRY FOR PLEASURE AND PROFIT 37 

Most states now have strict laws to protect the public from 
stale eggs unfit for consumption. Careful records of eggs 
and cost of production should be kept. Record sheets for 
this purpose can usually be obtained free from state experi- 
ment stations. 

Preservation of eggs should receive greater attention. 
Many preservatives have been tried and various results ob- 
tained. One experiment station tried twenty different meth- 
ods at one time, using twenty eggs for each preservative. 
After eight months the results were recorded. These varied 
from all bad for those preserved in salt water to all good for 
three of the preservatives. The three were those varnished 
with vaseline, the ones preserved in limewater, and those put 
into a solution of water glass. The water glass is regarded as 
the best preservative, as varnishing with vaseline takes too 
much time, and the limewater is likely to leave a bad odor in 
the eggs. One part of water glass to ten parts of boiled 
water is a solution of sufficient strength to keep eggs indefi- 
nitely, if they are covered with the solution and kept in a 
cool, dark place. Water glass (sodium silicate) may be pur- 
chased at any drug store. A large crock or jar may be used, 
and the eggs should be "packed" fresh and when they are the 
cheapest. This is a practical lesson in economics. 

A recent method for preserving eggs is to sterilize them 
by placing them momentarily in a neutral oil at a tempera- 
ture considerably above the boiling point. The heat solid- 
ifies the porous membranes just inside the shell and hermeti- 
cally seals the shell by the absorption of oil. 

MARKETING EGGS AND POULTRY 

Only clean, fresh eggs of uniform size should be marketed. 
Eggs will probably be sold by the pound in the near future, 
as they should be. Many communities have produce houses 
where eggs and poultry can be marketed on a cash basis. 
Two and three car loads of eggs a week are often shipped 



38 INDUSTRIAL BOOKLETS 

during the summer months from small towns where the 
poultry industry has been developed. It is exceedingly in- 
teresting to visit one of these produce houses and watch the 
operations. Expert workmen test the eggs, sort, grade and 
pack them into cases for shipping. There is a better market 
for eggs from standard bred poultry than from scrub stock, 
because they are uniform in color and size. 

Poultry is marketed alive and dressed. Most meat 
markets, as well as the produce houses, now prefer to get 
them alive. It does not pay the amateur to dress poultry 
for the difference in price, as the expert with modern con- 
veniences can do this so rapidly. Where there is no local 
market, the producer can ship in crates to the nearest city, 
where there is always a ready market. The meat and 
general purpose breeds are the most profitable for marketing. 
Poultry should be given strong rations and fattened rapidly 
for the market. There is an increasing demand for young 
stock for fryers and broilers, and prices are always high early 
in the spring. Caponizing is becoming more common and 
capons bring larger returns than ordinary roasters. 

STANDARD BRED POULTRY 

"The term Standard bred' covers the requirements of size, 
shape, [color] and general conformation of body considered 
necessary or useful for market poultry, and the size and 
weight of body for egg productions. " The American Poul- 
try Association determines these standards for the different 
breeds, and they are subject to change as the breed is per- 
fected. The present tendency is to give less attention to 
the purely fancy points and emphasize those that are con- 
ducive to utility. Poultry exhibitions have done a great deal 
toward encouraging better stock. Many states now offer 
aid to poultry associations and otherwise encourage the 
"shows." Birds that are to be shown should be put into 
special training coops and become familiar with show con- 






POULTRY FOR PLEASURE AND PROFIT 39 

ditions. Only those that can adapt themselves to those 
conditions and will permit handling should be exhibited. 
The plumage must be carefully groomed, and all light 
colored birds, at least, ought to be washed. Common tubs 
may be used for washing. In one have warm, soft water 
with suds of ivory soap. The bird should be thoroughly 
scrubbed in this, and rinsed in the next tub of clear water 
not so warm. A final plunge in a tub of cool bluing water 
will complete the process. Do not get too much bluing in 
the water. The writer once had an interesting experience 
in this way, finding it impossible to remove the azure tints 
before the exhibition. The fowls were finally entered as 
"Blue Leghorns" by the amused secretary of the show, and 
captured first honors in that newly created class. 

CLASSIFICATION 

Fowls are usually classified as meat breeds, egg breeds, 
general purpose, and fancy breeds, according to the purpose 
for which they are usually raised. The meat breeds are the 
large fowls raised for the market or for home consumption. 
They are sometimes spoken of as the Asiatics, as most of 
them originated in Asia. They are usually poor layers but 
good sitters, quiet and motherly. The larger American 
breeds, however, are coming to be preferable for table use. 
They are quicker growers. 

Terms used in the classification of poultry are class, 
breed and variety. Class denotes the larger groups, as 
American class. Breed refers to shape and form. Variety 
designates the color of the breed. For instance, there are 
several varieties of Leghorns — White, Brown, etc. All vari- 
eties should have the shape of the breed. 

MEAT BREEDS 

The Brahmas are regarded as typical of the heavier 
meat breeds. Their origin is not definitely known, but they 
are usually classified as Asiatics, although one authority 



40 



INDUSTRIAL BOOKLETS 




Figure 12. 



believes them to be Am- 
erican bred. The Brah- 
mas are the largest fowls, 
the standard for the 
Light Brahma cock be- 
ing twelve pounds and 
the hen should weigh 
nine and one half pounds. 
The comb of this breed 
is different from that of 
any other, and is some- 
times called a "pea- 

LightBrahmas. comb _„ There are tw0 

varieties — the Light and the Dark. The former are fairly 
good layers. The meat of the Brahmas is rather coarse 
and not of as fine quality as that of some other breeds. 
The quality of the meat of different breeds often depends, 
however, on their habits and feed. 

The Cochins were introduced into England from China 
and from there into this country. There are four varieties, 
Buff, Partridge, White, and Black, the Buff being the most 
popular. This breed is noted for its gentleness. A great 
amount of fluffy feathers and their "feathery legs" enable 
the Cochins to withstand a severe climate. They are all 
single comb varieties. 

The Langshans were 
also introduced from 
China. The quality of 
the flesh ranks among the 
best of the meat breeds, 
and the birds are more 
active and better layers 
than the others of this 
type. They are single 

COmbed, and lay buff COI- Figure 13. Partridge Cochins. 




POULTRY FOR PLEASURE AND PROFIT 



41 



orcd eggs, as the others of the 
type. There arc two varieties — 
the Black and the White, the 
former being the more popular. 
The Faverolles are usually 
classified with the meat type al- 
though they are not a distinct 
breed, being crossed from Coch- 
ins, Dorkings, Houdansand Brah- 
mas. This breed is not well 
known in America, but is popular 
in France where the tender flesh 
of the young broilers is relished. 




Figure 14. Black Langshan Cock. 



EGG BREEDS 

The breeds of this type are medium in size, rather long 
legged, vigorous and active. They are usually nervous and 
easily frightened, and do much better on range than in con- 
finement. High fences are necessary for many of them, as 
they are inclined to use their wings. Most of them mature 
early and for this reason some are prized as broilers for 
early markets. They are, as a whole, poor sitters. Those 
of the Mediterranean class are all good layers. To this 
class belong the Leghorn, Minorca, Spanish, Blue Andalu- 

sian and Ancona. The 
Hamburgs also come 
under the egg breeds. 

The Leghorns are 
the most popular of the 
egg breeds. They orig- 
inated in Italy, and now 
include the following 
varieties : Single-comb 
Brown, Rose-comb 

Figure 15. Brown Leghorns. BrOWn, Single-COmb 




42 



INDUSTRIAL BOOKLETS 



White, Rose-comb White, Single-comb Buff, Rose-comb 
Buff, Single-comb Black, and Silver. The Leghorns are 
all rather small in size, weighing from about four to six 
pounds. The White and Brown varieties are the best lay- 
ers, although some of the others are still too young as 
breeds to fully establish their egg production. The White 
Leghorn lays a slightly larger egg than the Brown and for 
that reason is selected by many poultrymen. It seems best 
to dispose of the stock after the second year, as hens usually 
do not lay so well after that time. 

The Minorcas are the 
largest of the Mediter- 
ranean class and were 
introduced from the is- 
land of Minorca. There 
are three varieties — the 
Single-comb Black, 
Rose-comb Black, and 
Single-comb White. 
They are especially 
stately looking birds, 
having large combs and 
wattles. The eggs are 
unusually large and 
white, excellent for fancy 
table use. While they 

probably lay as many pounds of eggs in a year as the Leg- 
horns, they are not yet as popular in this country, probably 
on account of the white flesh and dark legs. Yellow skin- 
ned fowls are preferable for table use. 

Blue Andalusians have probably been bred from the 
Minorcas and are thought to have originated in the province 
of Andalusia in Spain. They are slightly larger than the 
Leghorns and very good layers. There is but the one 
variety and it is rather difficult to keep true to color which 




Figure 16. Minorcas. 



POULTRY FOR PLEASURE AND PROFIT 



43 




Figure 17. Black Spanish. 



is bluish black, or slate 
blue. This fact, as well 
as the white color of the 
flesh, has prevented them 
from becoming as popu- 
lar as the Leghorns. 

The Spanish, or 
White-faced Black Span- 
ish, was brought to the 
United States from Eng- 
land. While they are 
good layers, they have 
not the hardy constitu- 
tion of the others of this 
class, the young being 
particularly susceptible 
to damp weather. They 
have been bred for fancy 
points and are now sometimes classed as fancy rather than 
utility stock. The white face and prominent ear lobe, 
with the glossy black plumage, make a very distinguished 
looking bird. 

The Hamburgs do not belong to the Mediteranean 
class, but they should be given with the egg breeds, as they 
are fine layers. They were in- 
troduced into England probably 
from North Germany and became 
general favorites. All varieties 
have rose combs with a charac- 
teristic spike at the rear. The 
plumage is beautiful. They are 
somewhat smaller and lay smal- 
ler eggs than the Leghorns. 
There are six varieties of Ham- 
burgs— Golden-spangled, Silver- Figure 18. Hamburg Cock. 




44 



INDUSTRIAL BOOKLETS 



spangled, Golden-penciled, Silver-penciled, White and Black. 
The Red Caps are an English breed of fine layers. They 
are larger than the Hamburgs and have red and black 
plumage. They are purely utility stock and are quite 
hardy. There is but one variety. They have rose combs. 

GENERAL PURPOSE BREEDS 

These are breeds best adapted for general utility pur- 
pose on the farm and small yard. They are of medium size, 
fairly good layers, with a considerable quantity and good 
quality of meat. They, therefore, produce both eggs and 
meat to suit the needs of home consumption. They are 
good foragers and may stand confinement better than the 
meat breeds. They have gentle dispositions, and usually 
make good sitters and brooders. The Plymouth Rocks and 
Wyandottes are by far the most popular of these breeds 
and both are of American origin. Most of the others of 
this type also belong to the American class. 

The reputation of fowls as layers probably often depends 

as much upon the special 
development of the strain 
as upon the breed. 

The Plymouth Rocks 
originated in Massachu- 
setts about half a cent- 
ury ago and have become 
great favorites. They 
are a cross between the 
Dominique and Black 
Java and seem to have 
inherited the good qual- 
ities of both. They are 
one of the largest of the 
general purpose type and 

Figure 19. White Plymouth Rocks. approach the egg type 




POULTRY FOR PLEASURE AND PROFIT 



45 









mffia£fwMiLsWiK$* "'rnSm 






'« 


l->.v ' ■ ■;■'■' 



Figure 20. Rhode Island Reds. 



for egg production. The 
flesh is a rich yellow and 
good quality. The Rocks 
are hardy and prolific. 
All have single combs. 
The Barred Rock is the 
best known variety of 
the Rocks and is popu- 
lar among fanciers on 
account of the difficulty 
in producing the proper 
color. The White Rocks 
are just as good layers, 
individuals having laid 
as high as two hundred 
fifty eggs in a year, and 
their appearance is better when dressed for the market. The 
newer varieties of Rocks are the Buff, Silver-penciled, Par- 
tridge and Columbian. These are not so well known as yet. 
The Wyandottes are a newer breed than the Rocks, but 
are a close second in popularity. The object sought was 
to produce a blocky, good sized fowl with large breast, and 
good laying qualities. The flesh is tender and juicy, and 
the fowl is small-boned. There are several varieties as 
follows: White, Silver, Golden, Buff, Black, Partridge, 
Silver-penciled and Columbian. The White Wyandottes 
are the best known variety. All have rose combs. 

The Rhode Island Reds are greatly prized for their fine 
texture, excellent flavor, and early maturity. They are 
good winter layers. This breed has but very recently been 
recognized by the American Poultry Association, probably 
on account of the tendency to vary in color as to plumage 
and eggs. They are a little smaller than the Rocks and 
Wyandottes and also more active. This breed has been 



46 



INDUSTRIAL BOOKLETS 




Figure 21. White Orpingtons. 



developed b y crossing 
all other important 
varieties. The name in- 
dicates their origin. 

The Orpingtons origi- 
nated in England, but 
have been improved in 
America until they rank 
as one of our leading 
general purpose breeds. 
The fowls of this breed are large, deep, full-breasted, and 
make excellent roasters. Some of the varieties, especially 
the White, are good layers. Buff and Black varieties are 
also recognized. They have both single and rose combs. 

There are other breeds of the general purpose type. 
The Java, originated in America, and is popular in some 
sections. There are Black and Mottled varieties. The 
Dominique is one of the oldest of the American class. 

They are hardy and have 
the characteristics of 
good general purpose 
fowls, somewhat resem- 
bling the Rocks, but 
lighter in color. They 
have rose combs. The 
Dorkings are great fav- 
orites in England, and 
are prized by Americans 
for the rich quality of 
the flesh and small pro- 
portion of bone. They 
lay well and make good 
utility stock. They have 
five toes, or one more 

Figure 22. Black Javas. 7 




POULTRY FOR PLEASURE AND PROFIT 



47 




than the ordinary fowl. Th e 
Houdans belong to the French 
class and are the most important 
of that class in this country. 
They are characterized by the 
crest, beard, and fifth toe, which, 
of course, are all objections to 
utility stock. It is sometimes 
difficult for them to see on ac- 
count of so many feathers about 
the head. The Cornish are not 
as popular as formerly, owing to the fact that newer breeds 
have surpassed them in both egg and meat production. The 
flesh is excellent, but they are not very prolific. They are 
close feathered and rather odd looking. There are three 
varieties — the Dark, White, and White-laced Reds. 

FANCY BREEDS 

These birds are bred for exhibition rather than utility 
purposes, although some are good layers and others have 
excellent meat quality. The Games are noted for their fine 
flavor. There are several varieties. 



Figure 23. Dorking cock. 




# s- 


:J£m 


- ^zffir , 






HP 


Pil\^*-? f'f'^j 






-"!'"' ,' 



Figure 24. White-crested Black 
Polish cock. 



Figure 25. White-crested Black 
Polish hen. 



48 



INDUSTRIAL BOOKLETS 



The Polish breeds are among the oldest. The name is 
not derived from Poland, but from the "poll" or crest on 
the top of the head. While the flesh is good, they are no 
longer raised as utility stock. The plumage is beautiful. 
Eight varieties are recognized, but the Silver, Golden, and 
White-crested Black are the most important. The Anconas 
are sometimes classified with the egg type, as they are good 
layers. Their plumage is beautiful. The Sultans were 
brought from Turkey. They are kept by fanciers on 
account of their odd appearance. The crest resembles the 
Polish. They can be made great pets for children. The 
Silkies are peculiar in not having their feathers webbed, and 
hence resemble large fluffy balls. The Frizzles are raised on 
account of their peculiar plumage, the feathers turning up- 
ward toward the head. Several varieties of rumpless fowls 
have been bred in the Eastern States. The have no tails. 
B antams are represented in a large number of varieties, but 
they are show birds and pets rather than utility stock. 

With numerous varieties and breeds of poultry it is 
evident the poultryman should select the kind he prefers 
after deciding what branch of the business he desires to 
emphasize. It is best to keep only one or two varieties and 
to be somewhat of a specialist in a more limited field. 





Figure 26. Houdan cock. 



Figure 27. Sultan cock. 



POULTRY FOR PLEASURE AND PROFIT 



49 



DUCKS 

During the last few years duck raising has been made 
very profitable on duck farms conducted by specialists. 
Some farmers prefer ducks to fowls, because they are 
more easily confined and do little or no damage even if on 
the range. Even duck rearing for eggs is becoming popular 
in sections where the demand has made a market for them. 
The older notion that a pond or stream is necessary for 
success has been abandoned and many raisers prefer no 
more water for ducks than for fowls. When forced, young 
ducks can be prepared for 
the market in from eight 
to twelve weeks, making 
the margin of profit 
higher than for fowls. 
All breeds, it is thought, 
have been developed 
from the original source, 
the wild Mallard. As pre- 
viously noted, the Mus- 
covy is an exception. 

The Pekin is one of the most popular ducks in America, 
although the Indian Runners are fast gaining ground. It 
originated in China, but has been greatly improved in 
America. It is large and creamy white and a great favorite 
with the "green duck" specialists, those who raise young 
ducks for early markets, as it matures quickly and can be 
made to weigh five or six pounds in ten weeks. The stand- 
ard weight for the mature bird is seven or eight pounds. 
The Pekins are good layers, beginning as early as February, 
if well cared for, and continuing until July. 

The Aylesburys are the popular white duck of England 
and rank next to the Pekins of this country. They are of 
about the same weight as the latter, although some think 
they are not so prolific. They cross well with the Pekins 




Figure 28. 



Pekin ducks. 

From Reliable Poultry Journal. 



50 



INDUSTRIAL BOOKLETS 




Figure 29. 



Aylesburg ducks. 

From Reliable Poultry Journal. 



and produce a profitable 
hybrid. The white breeds 
are more marketable 
than the colored, as the 
flesh is more desirable. 

The Rouen ducks 
are most like their an- 
cestors, the wild Mallard. 
They are about the size of the Aylesburys, and were 
brought to this country 
from England. The meat 
is fine grained and of 
excellent quality. The 
standard weight is heav- 
ier than the Pekins, but 
the young do not devel- 
op as rapidly and for 
that reason they are not 
as popular with large 
producers. They are ex- 
cellent farm poultry, as they are tame and quiet. 

The Indian Runners 
have recently become 
very popular in the Uni- 
ted States on account 
of their large egg pro- 
duction, and are some- 
times called the ''Leg- 
horns of the duck fam- 
ily." They are rather 
small and the carriage is 
more erect than that of 
any other duck. They 
move about more rapidly 




Figure 30. Rouen ducks. 







Figure 31. Indian Runners. 



POULTRY FOR PLEASURE AND PROFIT 



51 



than other breeds, hence the name "runners." They do 
not have the characteristic waddle of other ducks. It is 
not definitely known why the name Indian was applied, 
as the breed originated in Northern Europe. There are 
two well known varieties in this country — the Fawn and 
White, and the White. The flesh is fine grained and sweet; 
but, on account of its size, the Runner cannot compete with 
the Pekin for table use, which is still the most profitable 
branch of the duck industry. 

The Black Cayugas are named for Cayuga county, New 
York, where it is supposed they originated. They are a 
deep black with a lustrous green shade. Of about the same 
size and carriage as the Aylesbury, they are a good family 
duck, but not popular for the general market. 

The Muscovys are 
peculiar in that they 
do not quack, but hiss. 
In one sense they are 
quiet, that is, they are 
not noisy like the 
quacking Pekin. In 
another sense they are 
very noisy, as they of- 
ten keep up a great 

Figure 32. Colored Muscovy ducks. commotion in the 

farmyard, being rather pugnacious, especially toward other 
ducks, and they frequently have family quarrels. The 
slow, gyrating body movements, elevated feathers, and gut- 
teral sound during these quarrels between the females are 
often very amusing. The Muscovys were imported from 
Peru. They are the largest of the ducks, the drake some- 
times reaching fifteen pounds. The ducks are much smaller, 
this being a decided disadvantage in marketing. The flesh 
has a more delicate flavor than any of the other domesticated 
ducks. They lay well, producing large, oval eggs. Of the two 





■■•"-. -, ' : 



52 



INDUSTRIAL BOOKLETS 



varieties — the White and Colored — the latter are more popu- 
lar on account of the beautiful plumage. "In the drake 
the head is large, the head being covered with long crest-like 
feathers which are elevated under excitement. The sides 
of the head and face are covered with caruncles — the larger 
the better. The body is carried nearly horizontally.' ' 

The Crested White ducks combine the fancy and utility 
breeds. The body is round and plump. The head is 
adorned with a large white crest. 

The Blue Swedish ducks are not as popular as formerly, 
being smaller than the white ducks. The body color is 
steel blue and the head a dark blue, having a greenish tint 
in the drake. The breed originated in Sweden and was im- 
ported from Germany to this country. 

The Gray and White Call ducks, as well as the Black 
East India, are the bantams of the duck family and are bred 
chiefly for ornamental purposes. They are not common 
enough in most parts of the country to be generally known. 

GEESE 

Geese have been domesticated for thousands of years. 
The ancient Greeks prized them highly and "the cackling of 
the geese saved Rome" from capture by her enemies. Virgil 
mentions both silver and white varieties. It is within 

comparatively recent 
years, however, that 
geese have been given 
particular attention by 
poultrymen. Geese are 
not hard to raise and 
should be very profit- 
able, as they can be 
kept on range until fat- 
Figure 33. Toulouse geese. tening time in the late 




POULTRY FOR PLEASURE AND PROFIT 



53 



fall. They will thrive all summer long in a pasture where 
there is sufficient water. There are six standard breeds recog- 
nized by the American Poultry Association. These are the 
Toulouse, Embden, African, Chinese, Canadian and Egyptian. 
The first two are the only ones raised extensively for the mar- 
ket. Some poultrymen feed a special diet to enlarge the livers 
as these are considered a great delicacy in many markets. 

The Toulouse, or French Gray, goose is probably the 
most popular of the domestic geese. It is one of the largest 
and lays more eggs than the others. The male and female 
are so much alike that it is difficult for amateurs to dis- 
tinguish the sexes. They are quiet and fatten easily in the 
cool fall weather. They have been made to weigh between 
thirty and forty pounds, although this weight is higher 
than the requirements of the Standard of Perfection. The 
Toulouse is characterized by the full gullet beneath the 
throat, the deep keel and low paunch, giving a massive 
appearance. The light tips on the ends of the dark gray 
feathers give a beautiful appearance. 

The Embden is the popular 
white goose of this country. In 
size and shape it resembles the 
Toulouse, although the neck is a 
little longer and carried more erect. 
The paunch is not so marked as 
in the Toulouse, and English fan- 
ciers recognize only the smooth 
throat as standard. The pure 
white plumage contrasts well with 
the bright orange bill and feet and the blue eyes. They are 
good show birds. They sometimes lay as early as Feb- 
ruary, laying larger eggs than the Toulouse, but not so 
many. They are good sitters and brooders. 

The African is a gray goose of large size. The large, 
dark head is peculiar in having a black knob just above a 




Figure 34. Embden goose. 



54 



INDUSTRIAL BOOKLETS 



yz 




1 






Figure 35. African geese, 



Figure 36. White China geese. 



short, deep bill of the same color. The neck is rather long 
and curved, and the general carriage is more upright than 
the other large breeds. The Africans mature early and often 
average a pound a week for the first ten weeks when they 
are put on the market. For this reason poultrymen value 
them as "green geese." 

Chinese geese have two varieties — Brown and White. 
They also have knobbed heads, but are much smaller than 
the Africans. The plumage is a light brown in the one and 
a beautiful white in the other. On account of their grace and 
beauty this breed is usually classed as ornamental, although 
the flesh is finer grained than that of the larger breeds. 

The Canadian, or Wild Goose, has been domesticated 
from the wild state. It is about the same size as the Chinese 
and is raised by fanciers, as well as others who prize its 
delicious flavor. They are gray and black with white 
feathers on the sides of the head, on the breast, and tips 
of the wings. They are swan-like in appearance and by 
some are classed as true swans. They cross with the large 
breeds, but the hybrid cannot be bred further, hence it is 
often called the mule-goose. 



POULTRY FOR PLEASURE AND PROFIT 



55 



The Egyptians are purely ornamental, black and gray 
in color, and have thin arched necks. The many light and 
dark colors, and the graceful curves give them an aristo- 
cratic appearance. Their ferocious disposition makes them 
somewhat undesirable where they must associate with other 
fowls. 

TURKEYS 

Our turkeys have all been bred from the American wild 
turkey. This large variety is still found in the mountainous 
and other sheltered parts of the country, where it is a living 
example of the law of the " survival of the fittest." The 
wild tendencies are still evident in most of the varieties in 
their roaming qualities. The turkey is the most popular 
table fowl, and is often spoken of as our national bird. Its 
flesh is lighter and not so greasy as that of the water fowls. 
There are several breeds of domesticated turkeys, the best 
known being the Bronze, Narragansett, and the Holland. 
The Bronze is the largest and most popular turkey, often 
reaching a weight of forty pounds in the male. The fe- 
male weighs from 
twenty to twenty-five 
pounds. The origin 
is not certain, but it 
is believed to have 
come from a cross of 
the North American 
wild turkey on the 
Black variety. Great 
stress is laid on the 
large size of the 
Bronze. Correct 
markings on the plum- 
age are secondary to 

Figure 37. Bronze turkeys. Weight in this Variety. 




56 



INDUSTRIAL BOOKLETS 



The Narragansetts were originated in Rhode Island and 
were very popular before the development of the Bronze 
turkeys. They are gray in color, with a bronze luster on the 
wings. Maturing early and of a more gentle disposition 
than the Bronze, they are still raised extensively in some 
parts of the country. It was this breed that made the 
great reputation of the Rhode Island turkeys. 

The White Holland 
turkey is a hardy breed 
of German origin. It ma- 
tures earlier than the 
larger breeds and is often 
raised for this reason. Its 
plumage is white. This 
breed is the Leghorn of 
the turkey family, the 
hens sometimes laying 
all summer and even refusing to sit. As the, egg branch 
of the industry is not relatively important, it is not as pop- 
ular as the larger breeds. 

Other breeds of less importance are the Buff, raised by 
fanciers for its beautiful plumage; the Slate, very similar 
to the Buff except in color; the Black, the oldest variety, 
now chiefly bred in England; and the Bourbon Red, a large 
breed originating in Kentucky and by some compared 
favorably with the Bronze. 




Figure 38. White Holland turkeys. 



CHAPTER III 

AGRICULTURAL BOOKLETS 

GOOD RESULTS SECURED 

The boys shown in the accompanying illustration are 
just ordinary, healthy, farmer boys living two or three miles 
apart in one of the central counties of the "Gopher State." 
They are under fourteen years of age, but are veterans in 
corn growing, having been through several contests. The 

average acre 
crop which they 
have grown has 
been more than 
three times the 
state average, 
and their state 
averaged several 
bushels more 
than the average 
corn yield of the 
United States. 
So, while these 
are just average boys, they have grown much more than 
average corn. You will be interested in how they did it. 
Vern and Lawrence attended neighboring country schools. 
They were pretty much the same kind of schools that 
farmers' boys have attended in this country for generations. 
In fact about the only difference was that there were more 
books in the newer schools, and many of these books told 
so much about the wonderful things going on in the cities 
that some of the boys and girls became discontented, not 
only with the school, but also with the farm. But the 



imrrwrni 


. i .,, 


Mil 


/ :! li! 


jj 1 , 1 



Figure 39. Two prize winners in state contest and sam- 
ples of their corn. Average yield, 110 bushels per 
acre. The ear on the scale weighs one pound. 



57 



58 INDUSTRIAL BOOKLETS 

parents of these boys were progressive young farmers. 
Vern's father was particularly interested in pure bred stock, 
while Lawrence was the son of a farmer who saw some of 
the tremendous possibilities of corn breeding and growing 
in a state that, up to very recently, has not been regarded 
as being in the corn belt. The boys became more interested 
in the activities of the farm than in school and Vern quit to 
help his father. 

About this time a number of other progressive farmers, 
business men and educators saw the advisability of co- 
operating to secure state aid for the maintenance of industrial 
departments in the village school. The departments were 
secured and specialists were employed to teach the elements 
of agriculture and manual training to the boys, and home 
training to the girls. A teachers' training department pre- 
pared bright young men and women to teach the new sub- 
jects along with the old in the rural schools. Fifteen country 
school districts near the village got a new vision of country 
life and became "associated" with the central school for 
mutual benefit. The specialists from the local departments 
and from the state extension division held institutes in the 
rural schools for the parents and gave talks and demonstra- 
tions to the boys and girls. The teacher of agriculture 
interested the boys in corn and potato growing contests and 
assisted them in this work. The girls became interested in 
vegetable gardening, tomato contests, bread baking, and 
other practical work, assisted by the home training depart- 
ment of the central school. Both boys and girls forgot 
much of what they had read about city life and began to 
realize that they had what the boys and girls of the large 
cities longed for — plenty of fresh air, pure water and food, 
healthful environment, and the opportunity to come in con- 
tact with living plants and animals — in a word, the things 
most worth while in life. The farm and the home became 
interesting, and even the school became a part of real life. 



AGRICULTURAL BOOKLETS. 59 

It was not difficult to interest Lawrence in the first corn 
contest, as his father was already quite well known as a 
pure seed breeder and grower. Vern's father rather re- 
luctantly gave him an acre for the contest; but, when he 
succeeded in raising nearly double the amount on that acre 
that any other acre of corn on the farm produced, the father 
admitted that there must be some unusual reason for it. 
He was not fully convinced, however, and Vern was not 
encouraged to enter the contest the next year. The in- 
structor in charge of the contest work suggested that the 
success of the son was rather humiliating to the father and 
felt that this had something to do with the decision. Law- 
rence easily won first place over about twenty contestants 
that season. The next winter Vern again became interested 
in school on account of the kind of work which was done in 
the "short courses," and he studied corn and stock raising. 
The following summer he was determined to get into the 
contest again. He did so, and a battle royal was on. When 
the officials checked up in the fall, Vern led Lawrence by a 
few bushels, growing one hundred fifteen bushels and thirty- 
two pounds to the acre. At the short course commence- 
ment exercise, before an audience of hundreds of persons 
from the associated districts, he read from his "agricultural 
booklet" telling how he had raised this amount of corn. 
The picture shows the sample he had with him at that time. 
Can you tell from the picture which one is Vern? What is 
land worth that will raise as much corn annually as this 
boy raised? The work of these boys is worth consideration. 

Any wide-a-wake boy or girl can do as well, if equally in- 
terested. These two boys learned the value of good seed; 
how to pick it and store it; seed testing; planting to secure a 
good, even stand; cultivation, not only to kill weeds, but to 
conserve moisture. In short, they learned practical, scientif- 
ic farming. 



60 INDUSTRIAL BOOKLETS 

But these boys learned more than that. They learned 
to express themselves in better oral and written language, 
because they were familiar with the things they wished to 
discuss. The language and English lessons meant much 
more to them when they were a means of expressing some- 
thing that was of vital interest to the young folk in the 
classes. Because the schools have made the boys and girls 
interested in these practical things, these newer subjects 
have in turn vitalized the language work by supplying a 
wealth of interesting material about which to talk and write. 
Consequently, the schools in many states have made the 
industrial booklets the basis of the language work. 

The student should not be satisfied merely to work out 
a composition or essay from the outlines given for the vari- 
ous phases of industrial work. They should be worked out 
on the farm and in the home. Such subjects should be 
chosen as can be so developed. Students should become 
familiar with all the common grains, grasses, seeds, flowers, 
trees, vegetables, weeds, insects, and farm animals. These 
should be easy for country boys and girls, but how many 
know them? It is good to select seeds at special times, 
observe "Seed Corn Week," learn the "rag doll" and other 
methods of testing seeds, learn to use the common garden 
tools and farm implements, study the different soils and 
industries in your community; also the different breeds of 
horses, cattle, sheep, hogs, fowls, etc., raised. What kind 
of potatoes are being raised? Why that variety? The 
varieties should be compared to see which are better boiled, 
which baked, etc. 

Seeds are furnished for vegetable and flower gardens 
either at home or at school. Appreciation should be shown 
by having the best garden it is possible to have. The 
pleasure and profit to be derived from such work cannot be 
known until it has been tried. The ice cream at the pic- 
nic will taste better, fishing will be more delightful, and the 



AGRICULTURAL BOOKLETS 61 

ball game will be all the more worth while, on account of 
the garden and contest work. 

OUTLINES 

The outlines that follow are to be worked out by the 
student in booklet form. Reference material will be found 
in the school library, at home, and, above all, in the fields. 
The booklets should be worked out as fully as possible and 
illustrated with pictures and original drawings. Only the 
best writing and language the student is capable of using 
should be accepted in this work, as it is English work as 
well as agriculture. 

Suggestive topics for agricultural booklet work are as 
follows: Corn, Small Grains, Noxious Weeds, the Vege- 
table Garden, Potatoes, the Legumes, Alfalfa and Its Uses, 
the Fiber Crops of the United States, Grass and Forage 
Crops, Sugar Beets, Soils and Fertilizers, Seed Testing for 
Purity and Germination, Injurious and Beneficial Insects, 
Rotation of Crops, Drainage, The Need of Modern Methods 
in Farming, Dry Farming and Irrigation. 

CORN 

Corn has gradually replaced the small grains in so many 
states that "Corn is King." Diversified farming has brought 
about this change. Many states that formerly were not 
near the corn belt are now among the leaders in its pro- 
duction. New varieties have been bred to meet the new 
conditions. Corn is an excellent cultivated crop for any 
rotation series. It is, perhaps, the most widely used cereal, 
being used as human food, stock food, and in many other 
ways. All the numerous varieties with which we are 
familiar have been developed from the original Indian Corn. 

In 1914, 2,672,804,000 bushels of corn were raised in the 
United States. 



62 



INDUSTRIAL BOOKLETS 



1. Early History — 

(1) In the United States — Indian corn. 

(2) In your state — Development of varieties. 

(3) In your locality — Earliest growers. 

2. Importance as a Crop — 

(1) Where grown — Countries and states. 

(2) Yields per acre — National, state, local. 

(3) Comparison with other crops. 

3. Kinds of Corn — 

(1) Pod corn — Now only a curiosity. 

(2) Pop corn — Where grown, uses. 

(3) Sweet corn — Where grown, canning. 

(4) Flint — Where grown — varieties. 

(5) Dent — Where grown — varieties. 




Figure 40. Tray of typical seed corn. A few kernels have 
removed for testing. 

4. Cultivation — 

(1) Soil— 

(a) Fertility — Rotation of crops. 

(b) Drainage — Necessary to success 

(c) Physical conditions. 

(2) Preparation of seed bed — 

(a) Plowing — Fall plowing best. 



AGRICULTURAL BOOKLETS 



63 



(b) Disking — In the spring. 

(c) Harrowing — Before and after planting. 

(d) Manuring — Before plowing, top dressing. 

(3) Planting— 

(a) By hand — Hand planter, hoe. 

(b) Check row — Horse planter, advantage. 

(c) Drill — How drilled, advantages. 

(d) Time to plant locally. 

(4) Summer tillage — 
(a) Need of— 




Figure 41. Gathering seed corn at school farm and stringing for drying. 

(1) Eradication of weeds. 

(2) Conservation of moisture. 

(b) Depth — Shallow vs. deep. 

(c) Frequency — After every rain. 
5. Diseases and Pests — 

(1) Smut — Cause, eradication, dangers. 

(2) Animals — Gophers, crows, blackbirds. 

(3) Insects — Cutworm, wireworm, corn root louse, white 

grub, chinch bug, army worm, stalk borer, grass- 
hopper. 

(4) Method of dealing with pests. 



64 INDUSTRIAL BOOKLETS 

6. Harvesting — 

(1) Silage — When cut, how stored. 

(2) Bundle corn — When cut, machinery. 

(3) Husking — When, how, storing. 

7. Seed Selection — 

(1) From seed plot — Advantages. 

(2) From field — Best stalks and ears. 

(3) From crib — Disadvantages. 

(4) Time— "Seed Corn Week." 

(5) Quantity — Amount needed for ten acres. 

(6) Commercial purposes — Prevailing prices. 

8. Storing — 

(1) Temporary drying — Where, time. 

(2) Permanent storing — Free from moisture. 

(a) Patent devices. 

(b) Homemade devices. 

9. Corn Judging. 

(1) Without score card. 

(2) With score card. 

10. Seed Testing— 

(1) Testers — Patent, homemade. 

(2) Individual ear — Advantages. 

(3) Shelled corn — Disadvantages. 

11. Seed Grading — 

(1) How done — Machinery. 

(2) Why done — Butts and tips. 

12. Corn Breeding — 

(1) Improvement of quality — Better corn. 

(2) Improvement of quantity — More corn. 

(3) Improvement of maturity — Earlier corn. 

(4) Corn crossing — New varieties. 



AGRICULTURAL BOOKLETS 65 

13. Uses of Corn — 

(1) Stock food— 

(a) Grain — Ground or fed whole. 

(b) Bundle corn — Roughage and grain. 

(c) Silage — Protein and fattening qualities. 

(d) Hogging off — Advantages. 

(e) Commercial preparations — Gluten meal, etc. 

(2) Human food — 

(a) Cornmeal — How used. 

(b) Corn starch — Uses. 

(c) Hominy — How made, uses. 

(d) Corn syrup — How made, uses. 

(e) Corn sugar — How made, uses. 

(f) Special breakfast foods — Corn flakes, etc. 

(3) Other Uses — Paper, alcohol, armor wadding, etc. 

REFERENCES 
Corn by Bowman & Crossley, Field Crops by Wilson & War- 
burton, Corn Crops by Montgomery, and Forage and Fiber Crops of 
America by Hunt are excellent works of reference. 

ROTATION OF CROPS 

It is now pretty generally known that growing the same 
kind of crops on the same fields year after year will gradu- 
ally wear out the soil, or cause its fertility to become de- 
pleted. Scientists have various theories as to why this is 
so, but the fact remains that, when certain classes of crops 
follow other classes, better results are obtained. For 
example, when corn follows clover, and oats follow corn, a 
better crop of oats can be expected than if oats are grown 
year after year on the same soil. In general it has been 
shown that grain crops should be followed by grass crops 
and they in turn by cultivated crops. You will be interested 
in studying the system of rotation in use on the home farm 
or on any one that has a good system. 



66 



INDUSTRIAL BOOKLETS 




Figure 42. Field continuously in corn for fourteen years. 
Average 27 bushels per acre. 



1. Need of Rotation — 

(1) Exhaustion of soils — 

(a) In New England — Character of soil. 

(b) In Virginia — Tobacco raising. 

(c) In the 
West — Grain 
growing. 

(2) To decom- 
pose fertilizers — 

(a) How 
rotation helps. 

(b) Decom- 
position can take 
place only with 

heat, air and Figure 43. Sample of soil taken from above field, 
mr^icjf n™ TV>«o« Sucn soil easily dries out. It lacks the elements 

IllUlblUie. L nCbe necessary for plant growth. 




AGRICULTURAL BOOKLETS 



G7 




Figure 44. Field of corn in five-year rotation. Average, 58 bushels per acre. 



conditions should exist while the plant is grow- 
ing. Otherwise plant food is lost by washing. 

(3) To increase yields — 

(a) Crops actually larger under crop rotation. 

(4) To maintain soil fertility — 
(a) Some 

European soils, 
cropped for more 
than a thousand 
years under rota- 
tion, better than 
virgin soil. 
2. Theories of 
Rotation — 
(1) Toxic-Poi- 
sons produced by Figure 45. Sample of soil taken from above field. 
cnipPA««i\m nrrmv Notice the difference in texture and physical con- 

&UtLC&!MVe Ciup&. dition between the two soils. 




68 INDUSTRIAL BOOKLETS 

(2) Chemical — Plant food unlocked, bacteria. 

(3) Economic — Maintains vegetable matter. 

3. Classes of Rotation — 

(1) Grain crops — Kinds, advantages — 

(a) Food and sale crops. 

(b) Little vegetable matter left in soil. 

(2) Grass crops — Kinds, advantages. 

(a) Live stock — Pasturage. 

(b) Vegetable matter — Large roots, bacteria. 

(3) Cultivated crops — Kinds, advantages. 

(a) Economy in time— Summer work. 

(b) Favorable conditions for decomposition. 

(c) Effect on soils — How beneficial. 

4. Principles of Rotation — 

(1) Short time — 

(a) For building up worn out soils. 

(b) Three-year rotation — Grain, grass, cultivated. 

(2) Long time — 

(a) For permanent use. 

(b) Five to ten years — Advantages. 

(3) Fertilizers used — 

(a) Dressing of manure once during rotation. 

(b) Commercial fertilizers as needed. 

(4) Relation to fields — 

(a) Same number of fields as years of rotation. 

(b) Fields uniform size as nearly as possible. 

(c) Enables constant supply of live stock. 



AGRICULTURAL BOOKLETS 



69 



Suggestive Rotations — ■ 

(1) Three Year Plan- 
Fear Field A Field B 

1915 Grain Clover 

1916 Clover Corn 

1917 Corn Grain 



(2) Four Year Flan- 
Year Field A 



1915 
1916 
1917 
1918 



Grain 
Meadow 
Pasture 
Corn 



Field B 

Meadow 

Pasture 

Corn 

Grain 



Field C 

Pasture 

Corn 

Grain 

Meadow 



Field C 
Corn 
Grain 
Clover 



Field D 

Corn 

Grain 

Meadow 

Pasture 



(3) Five Year Plan— 

Year Field A Field B Field C Field D Field E 

1915 Grain Grain Meadow Pasture Corn 

1916 Grain Meadow Pasture Corn Grain 

1917 Meadow Pasture Corn Grain Grain 

1918 Pasture Corn Grain Grain Meadow 

1919 Corn Grain Grain Meadow Pasture 

Note: Find out what rotations are used in the community and 
encourage wider use of them. 

REFERENCES 

A new work entitled, Field Management and Crop Rotation by 
E. C. Parker is a most thorough treatment of this subject and an 
invaluable book for reference. 



COMMON WEEDS 

Every boy and girl should learn to identify the most 
common weeds. Unfortunately one will not have to hunt 
long to find most of them along the roadside, or in the 
streets, in back yards, fields and even in most gardens. 
The economic importance of weeds can be realized when we 
remember the tremendous losses due to their neglect. It 



70 INDUSTRIAL BOOKLETS 

is not sufficient to know the growing weed. We must 
learn to recognize the seeds also. A knowledge of weed 
classification will enable one to intelligently apply the 
methods of eradication. There should be a careful study 
of as many of those given in the outline as can be found 
during the summer and a collection should be brought to 
school for identification. Seeds may be preserved in 
small pill bottles. They should be carefully labeled. 

1. Definition of a Weed — Any plant out of place. 

2. Classification — 

(1) Annual weeds — 

(a) Characteristics — Ripen seeds one year only. 

(b) Eradication — Destroy before seed forms. 

(2) Biennial weeds — 

(a) Characteristics — Ripen seeds the second year. 

(b) Eradication — Prevent seeding. 

(3) Perennial weeds — ■ 

(a) Characteristics — Ripen seeds every year. 

(b) Eradication — Destroy seed and root stem. 

3. Economic Conditions — 

(1) Injurious effects — ■ 

(a) Rob crops of moisture. 

(b) Take nourishment from crops. 

(c) Sometimes poisonous to live stock. 

(d) Money loss — Millions of dollars annually. 

(2) Beneficial effects — 

(a) Fertilizers — Plowed under as "green manure." 

(b) Shade ground — Prevent baking of soil. 

(c) Rotation — Sometimes compel rotations of crop. 



AGRICULTURAL BOOKLETS 



71 



4. A Few of the "Worst Weeds"— 
(1) Russian thistle — 

(a) Annual — Small seeds, tumble weed. 

(b) Where found — Flat prairie country. 

(c) How destroyed — Cultivation, crop rotation. 




Figure 46. Wild mustard. 



(2) Pigeon grass — 

(a) Other names — Foxtail, barn grass. 

(b) Annual — Small seeds, large head. 

(c) Where found — Gardens, grain fields. 

(d) How destroyed — Cultivation. 

(3) Ragweed — 

(a) Annual — Three kinds, small seeds. 

(b) Especially obnoxious — Hay fever. 

(c) Where found — Roadsides, waste places. 

(d) How destroyed — Mow roads and corners. 



72 INDUSTRIAL BOOKLETS 

(4) Cocklebur — 

(a) Annual — Seeds in clusters. 

(b) Where found — Grain fields. 

(c) How destroyed — Cultivation, pasturing. 

(5) Mustard— 

(a) Annual — Tall plant, yellow flower. 

(b) Where found — Grain fields. 

(c) How destroyed — Crop rotation. 

(6) Wild cat— 

(a) Annual — Ripens early and shells out. 

(b) Where found — Grain fields. 

(c) How destroyed — Crop rotation. 

(7) Burdock— 

(a) Biennial — Bushy plant, seed in burs. 

(b) Where found — Roadside, pastures. 

(c) How destroyed — Digging up, plowing. 





1 QfvSfp Jt ^W 


* -it- 


■ , ■ ' . '■ '.■ ■■■ ■ 









Figure 47. Curled-leaf dock in pasture. 



AGRICULTURAL BOOKLETS 73 

(8) Bull thistle— 

(a) Biennial — Bushy plant, red flower. 

(b) Where found — Pastures, waste places. 

(c) How destroyed — Crop rotation. 

(9) Dock— 

(a) Perennial — Four kinds. 

(b) Where found — Low, moist places, meadows. 

(c) How destroyed — Deep cutting, hand pulling, 

crop rotation. 

(10) Dandelion— 

(a) Perennial — Small plant, yellow flower. 

(b) Where found — Everywhere, lawns in particular. 

(c) How destroyed — Dig out, sheep pasture. 



/ / 

/ \ 






i / ' /"/' -' 111 P ( \ j %H,- 

-/ "■/> 4 J J 1 ! 



Figure 48. Quack grass. 



74 INDUSTRIAL BOOKLETS 

(11) Canada thistle — 

(a) Perennial — One of our worst weeds. 

(b) Where found — Grain fields, roadsides. 

(c) How destroyed — Cultivation, crop rotation. 

(12) Plantain— 

(a) Perennial — Small plant, seeds in spikes. 

(b) Where found — Lawns, pastures. 

(c) How destroyed — Dig up, sheep pasture. 

(13) Quack grass — 

(a) Perennial — Perhaps our worst weed. 

(b) Where found — Grain fields, pastures, roads. 

(c) How destroyed — Crop rotation, smothering sum- 

mer fallow. 

REFERENCES 

Much help may be obtained from Weeds and How to Eradicate 
them by Shaw, Quack Grass Eradication by Crane, Weeds of the 
Farm and Garden by Pammel, and Manual of Weeds by Georgia. 

INSECTS THAT I KNOW 

To the average individual all insects are "bugs." This 
conception is erroneous. Next to the study of birds there 
is probably no more delightful outdoor study than that of 
insects. The common grasshopper is a good example of 
an insect which has an incomplete series of changes from 
the egg to the adult. The young grasshopper is called a 
nymph. The moth or butterfly is an example of the other 
kind of insect — those having four changes, or metamor- 
phoses. These changes may easily be observed by careful 
study. Methods of extermination must depend upon 
whether insects belong to the biting or sucking class. Learn 
to know the common insects. 



AGRICULTURAL BOOKLETS 



75 



1. General Description — 

(1) Parts— Head, 
thorax, abdomen. 

(2) Legs — all have 
three pairs. 

(3) Breathing spir- 
acles — Tubes on 
abdomen. 

2. Stages of Growth. 

(Metamorphoses) — 

(1) First stage — Egg. 

(2) Second stage — 
Larva. 

(3) Third stage— Pu- 
pa, or cocoon. 

(4) Fourth stage — 
Imago, or adult. 

(5) Incomplete metamorphoses — Egg, nymph, adult. 




Figure 49. Cecropia (large silk worm) moth — 
pupa and cocoon. 



3. . Groups of Insects — 

(1) Biting— 

(a) Mouth parts fitted for biting. 

(b) Example — Grasshopper. 

(c) How destroyed — Can be poisoned. 

(d) Sprays — Paris green, lead acetate. 

Paris green 1 pound 

Quicklime 1 pound 

Water : 200 gallons 

(2) Sucking— 

(a) Mouth parts fitted for sucking juices. 

(b) Example — Plant louse. 

(c) How destroyed — Suffocation, cannot poison. 

(d) Sprays — Soap emulsion, tobacco, tea. 



76 INDUSTRIAL BOOKLETS 

Soap y 2 pound 

Soft Water 1 gallon 

Kerosene 2 gallons 

(3) Preying insects — 

(a) Those that feed upon other insects. 

(b) Example — Ladybugs. 

(c) How protect — Beneficial, not injurious. 

4. Economic Conditions — 

(1) Money losses — Millions of dollars annually. 

(2) Mechanical devices for destroying. 

(3) Unsanitary — Disease carriers. 

(4) Annoying pests — Mosquitoes, cockroaches, etc. 

5. Straight- winged Insects — Orthoptera — 

(1) Grasshopper — 

(a) Changes — Incomplete, biting insect. 

(b) Economy — Injurious, grain and grass. 

(2) Cockroach — 

(a) Changes — Incomplete, biting insect. 

(b) Economy — Injurious, infest houses. 

(3) Cricket— 

(a) Changes — Incomplete, biting insect. 

(b) Economy— Injurious, fields, homes. 

6. Sheath-winged Insects — Coleoptera (Beetles) 

(1) Potato beetle — 

(a) Changes — Complete, biting insect. 

(b) Economy — Injurious, damage enormous. 

(2) Buffalo beetle— 

(a) Changes — Complete, biting insect. 

(b) Economy — Injurious, carpets, clothing. 

(3) Ladybug (Not a bug at all) — 

(a) Changes — Complete, biting insect. 

(b) Economy — Beneficial, destroys insects. 



AGRICULTURAL BOOKLETS 



77 



(4) Boll weevil — 

(a) Changes — Complete, biting insect. 

(b) Economy — Injurious, eats cotton boll. 

(5) Plum curculio — 

(a) Changes — Complete, biting insect. 

(b) Economy — Injurious, plum, cherries, apples. 

Half-winged Insects — Hemiptera (Bugs) — 

(1) Plant lice— 

(a) Changes — Irregular, sucking insects. 

(b) Economy — Injurious, plant juices. 

(2) Scale bugs (San Jose and others) — 

(a) Changes — Complete, sucking insects. 

(b) Economy — Injurious, orchards, trees. 

(3) Squash bug — 

(a) Changes — Complete, sucking insect. 

(b) Economy — Injurious, attacks all vines. 

(4) Chinch bug — 

(a) Changes — Complete, sucking insect. 

(b) Economy — Injurious, grains, grasses, corn. 

(5) Bedbug— 

(a) Economy — Injurious, houses, hotels. 

(b) Destroy with corrosive sublimate in alcohol and 
turpentine. 

Two-winged Insects — Dip- 

tera — 
(1) Typhoid fly — Common 

house fly. — 

(a) Changes — Complete, 
biting insect. 

(b) Economy— Disease Figure 50. House, or typhoid, fly 

carriers, scavengers. ^10. v. w-m,™ 




78 INDUSTRIAL BOOKLETS 

(2) Hessian fly — 

(a) Changes — Complete, "flax seed" stage. 

(b) Economy — Injurious — wheat fields. 

(3) Fleas and mosquitoes — ■ 

(a) Changes — Complete, biting insects. 

(b) Economy — Great human pests. 

(4) Botfly— 

(a) Changes — Complete, parasites. 

(b) Economy — Horse and cattle pests. 

9. Scaly- winged Insects — Lepidoptera — 

(1) Distinguish between moths and butterflies. 

(2) Codling moth— 

(a) Changes — Complete, biting insect. 

(b) Economy — Injurious, apples. 

(c) How destroy — Spray with arsenate of lead. 

(3) Cotton moth. (Army worm) — • 

(a) Changes — Complete, biting insect. 

(b) Economy — Great damage to cotton and oats. 

(c) How destroy — Spray with arsenate of lead for 

small areas. For large ones see reference books. 

(4) Cabbage butterfly— 

(a) Changes — Complete, biting insect. 

(b) Economy — Destroys cabbages. 

(c) How destroy — Cover cabbage with flour. 

10. Membrane-winged Insects — Hymenoptera — 

(1) Bees— 

(a) Varieties — Life history. 

(b) Changes— Complete, biting, insects. 

(c) Economy — Beneficial, honey, wax, etc. 

(2) Ichneumon flies — 

(b) Changes— Complete, parasite, 
(b) Economy — Beneficial, destroys great numbers of 
insects annually. 



AGRICULTURAL BOOKLETS 
REFERENCES 



79 



Insects Injurious to Staple Crops by Sanderson, Insects Injurious 
to Vegetables by Chittenden, Manual of Fruit Insects by Slingerland 
& Crosby, Injurious Insects — How to Recognize and Control Them 
by O'Kane, Our Insect Friends and Enemies by Smith, and Spraying 
Crops — Why, When and How by Weed. 

COTTON 



greatest fiber crop. It is also 
one of the leading crops of 
the United States, about 
three quarters of a billion 
dollars worth now being rais- 
ed annually. Manufactured 
products from the coarsest 
to the finest grade fabrics 
are every day necessities the 
world over. A great num- 
ber of by-products are made 
from the seed. 

This important plant has 
been raised since prehistoric 
times. It probably originated in India or China. Alex- 
ander the Great is said to have introduced it into Europe. 
It is almost three hundred years ago that the Virginian col- 
onists first began to grow cotton. The fertile soils and warm 
climate of the South have been conducive to its growth, and 
the invention of the cotton gin by Eli Whitney made its 
wonderful future possible. Our great Southland now pro- 
duces more than three fifths of the world's supply. 

1. Importance of Cotton — 

(1) Greatest fiber crop. 

(2) Why called"King Cotton". 




Figure 51. Picking cotton. 



80 INDUSTRIAL BOOKLETS 

(3) Raw materials — 

(a) Home trade. 

(b) Foreign trade. 

(4) Finished products — 

(a) Home markets. 

(b) Foreign markets. 

2. History of Cotton — 

(1) Since preKistoric times — 

(2) Originated in India or China — 

(3) Called "tree wool" by ancients — 

(4) Columbus found native cotton in America — 

(5) Early uses of cotton — 

3. Development in the United States — 

(1) Introduced into Virginia Colony — ■ 

(a) Date 1621. 

(b) How raised? 

(c) Uses in Colonial times. 

(2) Great increase in production due to — 

(a) Climatic conditions of the United States. 

(b) Fertile soils of the South. 

(c) Invention of cotton gin. 

(d) Other causes. 

(3) Principal money crop of the South — 

(a) Comparison with corn crop. 

(b) Comparison with wheat crop. 

(c) Comparison with other crops. 

(4) Spread of cotton area — 

(a) In western Texas. 

(b) In Oklahoma. 

4. Types of Cotton — 

(1) American upland cotton — 

(a) Short-staple — Importance. 

(b) Long-staple — Importance. 



AGRICULTURAL BOOKLETS 81 

(2) Sea Island cotton — 

(a) Originated in West Indies. 

(b) Must be grown near coast. 

(c) How different from upland. 

(d) Lower yields, but higher prices. 

5. Improvement of Cotton — 

(1) By selection of varieties— 

(a) Erect plants. 

(b) Bushy plants. 

(2) By selecting seed from best plants — 

(a) Strength of lint. 

(b) Fineness of fiber. 

(c) Uniformity of color. 

(3) By better farming methods — 

(a) Commercial fertilizers. 

(b) Permanent rotations. 

(c) Early planting — Good seed — Good stand. 

(d) Proper tillage during growing season. 

6. Suitable Soils — 

(1) Medium loams best — 

(2) Other good soils are suitable provided there is — 

(a) Long, warm growing season. 

(b) Plenty of rainfall. 

(3) Deep soils — Good subsoil — 
(a) Cotton has long taproot. 

(4) Green manure — 

(a) As fertilizer. 

(b) Conserves moisture. 

(c) Cowpeas, peanuts, soy beans, crimson clover. 

(5) Very sandy soils poor because — 

(a) They require expensive fertilizer. 

(b) Rust disease attacks plant worse. 



82 INDUSTRIAL BOOKLETS 

(6) Very rich soils not suitable because — 

(a) Plants grow coarse and produce a small crop. 

7. Preparation of Seed Bed — 

(1) Fall plowing — 

(a) Kills insects. 

(b) Germinates poor seed and allows frost to kill it. 

(c) Refuse turned under to form humus. 

(2) Ridging the soil in the spring- 

(a) With turning plow. 

(b) With disk-harrow. 

(3) Harrowing — 

(a) To kill weeds. 

(b) To conserve moisture. 

(4) Marking for planting — 

(a) With shovel plow. 

(b) With special drills. 

8. Fertilizers Used — 

(1) Natural— 

(a) Barnyard manure. 

(2) Commercial — 

(a) 3% nitrogen, 1% phosphoric acid, and 1M% pot- 
ash of seed sold should be returned to the soil. 

9. Planting — 

(1) 3J/2 to 4 feet between rows — 15 inches apart. 

(2) 1 to V/2 bushels seed per acre. 

(3) From early March to May. 

10. Cultivation of Crop — 

(1) Harrowing before and after crop comes up — 

(2) Frequent and shallow — 

(3) Should continue until first picking — 

1 1 . Harvesting — 

(1) By machinery — 

(a) Not generally successful — 



AGRICULTURAL BOOKLETS 83 

(2) By hand— 

(a) Most expensive part of crop. 

(b) Average about $9 per bale of 500 lbs. for picking. 

(3) Yields per acre — 

(a) Average only about 200 pounds. 

(b) "Demonstration" farms yield from 600 to 800 

pounds. 

(c) Can be greatly increased by scientific methods. 

12. Marketing — 

(1) Cotton gin — 

(a) History of. 

(b) Separates the seeds. 

(c) Bales the cotton. 

(2) Bales should be protected from weather — 

(3) Foreign and domestic markets — 

(4) Grades of cotton — 

13. By-products — 

(1) Cottonseed — 

(a) -Oil— Uses. 

(b) Meal— Uses. 

(2) Linters, trash, etc. 

(a) Seven or eight per cent. 

14. Diseases of Cotton — 

(1) Cotton wilt— 

(a) Causes and remedies. 

(2) Cotton rust — 

(a) Causes and remedies. 

(3) Cotton root-knot — 

(a) Causes and remedies. 

15. Insect Enemies — 

(1) Boll weevil. 

(a) Damage done — Extermination. 

(2) Boll worm, or "corn worm" — 

(a) Damage done — Extermination. 



CHAPTER IV 

HORTICULTURE BOOKLETS 

"Horticulture' ' comes from two Latin words meaning 
the cultivation of a garden. We can, therefore, properly 
place vegetable gardening, fruit raising, and landscape gar- 
dening under the head of horticulture. There are many 
interesting topics in this group that can be made subjects 
for booklet work. The following list will suggest others : 

Strawberries, Brush Fruits, Apples, Fruit Bearing Trees, 
Citrus Fruits, the Vineyard, the Stone Fruits, the Orchard, 
Landscape Gardening, the Vegetable Garden, Potatoes, and 
Market Gardening. 

STRAWBERRIES 

What boy or girl is not particularly fond of ripe, lus- 
cious strawberries? That the average garden does not raise 
enough for home use is usually because no one cares "to 
bother with such things." Raising small fruit is not only 
interesting in itself, but it is one of the most profitable 
forms of industry for young folk. One should study the 
varieties, learn how they are propagated, and select the 
most suitable kind for one's own garden. There is always 
a demand and good price for any amount produced. 

1. Where Grown — 

(1) Almost every country in the world. 

(2) More widely grown than any other fruit. 

2. Origin — 

(1) South America — Chile, most varieties 

(2) Wild strawberry — ,A few varieties. 

84 



HORTICULTURE BOOKLETS 



85 




Figure 52. Fine cluster of strawberries. 

(3) Alpine strawberry — Native of Europe. 

(a) Everbearing variety — Becoming important. 

3. Location and Soil — 

(1) Northern slope — Retarded in spring, no frost. 

(2) Sandy loam — Rich, well drained. 

(3) Warm soil — Retain moisture. 

(4) Sod — Likely to contain cutworms, etc. 

(5) Cultivated soil — Corn or potato land good. 

(6) Preparation of soil — 

(a) Fertilizer — Heavy manuring, or commercial. 

(b) Plowing — Shallow, fall. 

(c) Disking — Thoroughly worked, spring. 

(d) Seed bed— Loose on top, compact below. 

4. Propagation — 

(1) By seed — 

(a) Used in obtaining new varieties. 

(2) By division of old plants — 

(a) Used to propagate individual plants. 



86 INDUSTRIAL BOOKLETS 

(3) By runners — 

(a) The common way. 

(b) How done. 

5. Plants and Planting— 

(1) One year old plants — White, fibrous roots- 
(a) Used for spring planting. 

(2) Spring plants — White roots — 
(a) Used for fall planting. 

(3) Old plants — Dark roots — 
(a) Not good for planting. 

(4) Time for planting — 

(a) Spring — For northern climates. 

(b) Fall — For southern climates. 

(5) Heeling in — ■ 

(a) When dry, or when soil is not ready. 

(b) Open bunches — Place in furrow, pack. 

(6) Methods of planting — 

(a) Hill method — For small patches, hoe. 

(b) Matted rows — For large patches, cultivate. 

Set rows four feet apart, two feet apart in the 
row. Use corn marker for large patch. 

(7) Planting— 

(a) Two persons — Man with spade, boy plants. 

(b) Trowel — For small garden patches. 

(c) Staminate and pistillate varieties, hardy. 

6. Care During Summer — 

(1) Cultivation — Horse, between rows — 

(a) Shallow — Free from weeds, moisture. 

(b) Thin plants if necessary, cut runners. 

(2) Train runners with the rows 

(3) Pick off all blossoms. 



HORTICULTURE BOOKLETS 87 

7. Winter Protection — 

(1) Materials — Straw, hay, etc. 

(2) Time — Cover after ground is frozen. 

(3) Depth — Cover three or more inches. 

(4) Remove — After danger of frost in spring. 

(5) Place straw between rows, conserve moisture. 

8. Renewing Beds — 

(1) After one crop — Most growers plow up. 

(2) Second year crop — If necessary — 

(a) Mow off and burn. 

(b) Plow furrow each side, leave one foot wide. 

(c) Manure, cultivate. 

(d) New plants, grown by fall. 

9. Picking and Marketing — 

(1) For home use — Pick ripe, wash. 

(2) For market — Rather green, boxes — 
(a) Sort berries for market. 

(3) Prices — Local, shipping. 

10. Strawberry Diseases and Insects — 

(1) Rust on leaves — 

(a) Spray with Bordeaux mixture. 

(b) Rake up leaves and burn. 

(2) White grub and cutworm — 

(a) Do not plant on sod. 

(b) Rake and burn after picking. 

(3) Leaf roller — 

(a) Spray with arsenate of lead. 

REFERENCES 

Popular Fruit Growing by Green, The A B C of Strawberry Cul- 
ture by Terry, and Strawberry Culturist by Fuller. 



88 



INDUSTRIAL BOOKLETS 



THE ORCHARD 

Every home should have an orchard large enough to at 
least furnish the family with all the fruit needed. There 
are enough hardy varieties of orchard fruits so that even 
in the northern climates there should be no lack of fruit. 
A small outlay and a little care will bring the desired re- 
sults that will be both pleasing and profitable. 

In the United States in 1909 there were over one hun- 
dred and fifty millions of apple trees of fruit-bearing age. 
They produced an average of almost a bushel to a tree, 
valued at $83,231,492. 




Figure 53. A well kept young apple orchard. 



1. Location of the Orchard — 

(1) Northern exposure — Usually best — 

(a) Prevents freezing in spring. 

(b) Prevents injuring from hot winds in summer. 

(2) Near body of water — 

(a) More even temperature. 



HORTICULTURE BOOKLETS 89 

2. Drainage — ■ 

(1) Air drainage — 

(a) High spots — Cold air in valleys. 

(b) Rolling lands. 

(2) Soil drainage — 

(a) Natural — High and rolling lands. 

(b) Tile — Between rows, if necessary. 

3. Home Orchard — 

(1) Plant where most convenient. 

(2) Not always ideal location. 

4. The Soil— 

(1) Hardpan subsoil — To be avoided. 

(2) Gravel and sand — Not good. 

(3) Heavy clay loam — Too slow. 

(4) Light clay loam — Best. 

(5) Hardwood soil — Usually good. 

5. Preparation — 

(1) Cultivated land best. 

(2) Fertilizers — Rotted manure, green manure. 

(3) Plowing — Fall, very deep. 

(4) Disking and harrowing — Spring. 

6. Orchard Stock — 

(1) From reliable nurseries. 

(2) Get stock early. 

(3) Heeling in — Cover roots in trenches. 

(4) Size of trees— One to three years old. 

(5) Grafted stock — Root, scion. 

(6) Head the tree low. 

(7) Know varieties best suited to locality. 



90 



INDUSTRIAL BOOKLETS 




Figure 54. Tree, heavy with citrus fruit. 



Courtesy The Van Sant Co. 



7. Varieties for Northwest — 

(1) Apples — Duchess, Hibernal, Patten's Greening, Oka- 

bena, Wealthy, Malinda, Anisim, Iowa Beauty, 
Milwaukee, Jewell's Winter. 

(2) Crabs and hybrids — Whitney, Florence, Strawberry, 

Minnesota, Transcendent. 

(3) Plums and hybrids — De Soto, Forest Garden, Wolf, 

Wyant, Stoddard, Terry. 

8. Planting — 

(1) Distance between trees — Twenty-five to thirty feet. 

(2) Arrangement — Some definite system — 

(a) Triangular system — More trees to acre. 

(b) Square plan — For small orchards. 

(c) Straight rows — Beauty, convenience. 

(d) Planting board — Accuracy. 

(3) Trim roots — About eight inches long. 



HORTICULTURE BOOKLETS 



91 




Figure 55. In the grapefruit grove. 



Courtesy The Van Sant Co. 



(4) Depth — Plant deeper than in nursery. 

(5) Firm soil around tree — Two-inch mulch on top. 

(6) Moisture — Do not water unless very dry. 

Citrus Fruits — • 

(1) Where grown. 

(2) Kinds of soil suitable. 

(3) Site of grove — Transportation, drainage, protection, 

rainfall, etc. 

(4) Orange — Bahia, or Navel, Pineapple, Parson Brown, 

TardifT, Centennial, King, Valencia. 

(5) Tangerine — Satsuma, China, Dancy, King. 

(6) Kumquat — Nagami, Maruni. 

(7) Grapefruit — Standard, Duncan, Excelsior, Hall, 

Marsh, Royal. 

(8) Citron — Corsican, Lyman, Orange. 

(9) Lemon — Lisbon, Sicily, Eureka. 

(10) Lime — Imperial, Mexican, Persian. 



92 INDUSTRIAL BOOKLETS 

10. Other Fruits— 

1) Where grown. 

2) Peaches — Climatic conditions, varieties, marketing. 

3) Pears — Varieties, marketing, etc. 

4) Others — Kinds, where grown, commercial value. 

11. Training the Tree — 

1) Cut top to within two feet. 

2) Prune each spring. 

3) Low, well formed top desired. 

12. Cultivation — 

1) To secure rapid growth. 

2) Use disk and harrow. 

13. Protection — 

1) Do not cultivate too close. 

2) Wrappers protect from sun scald. 

3) Soil mounted around crowns in fall. 

4) Snow sheds — Prevent breaking branches. 

5) Washes — Protect from insects. 

6) Spraying — Keeps tree healthy. 

14. Marketing Fruit — 

1) Home markets — Keeping apples. 

2) Selling on the trees. 

3) Picking and packing. 

REFERENCES 

Popular Fruit Growing by Green, Productive Orcharding by 
Sears, and Principles of Fruit Growing by Bailey. 

VEGETABLE GARDENS 

Whether in town or country every home should have its 
vegetable garden. No other spot pays so well, and the 
pleasure derived from contact with the garden on a pleasant 



HORTICULTURE BOOKLETS 93 

spring morning or summer evening is more than its money 
value. Without a garden, fewer vegetables are used, as 
they must be purchased, and the cost of living is increased 
to the extent that more high priced meat and groceries 
must take their place. It is a good plan to leave part of 
the garden work to the women and children, but not all of 
it. The preparation of the soil, laying out the garden so 
that machinery can be used, and part of the work should 
be done by the men. The garden should contain a good 
variety of vegetables for use from early spring until late 
fall. A few simple tools kept sharp, and a garden drill for 
sowing and cultivating, if the patch is large, are necessary 
for good results. 

1. Location of Vegetable Garden — 

(1) Near the house — Saves time. 

(2) Fenced in — Or fence chicken yard. 

2. Classes of Gardens — 

(1) Market garden — 

(a) Planning — Grow for demands of market. 

(b) Marketing — Delivery, packing, transportation. 

(2) Home garden — 

(a) May be part of market garden. 

(b) Small kitchen garden. 

3. Arrangement — 

(1) Must be more or less permanent — 
(a) Perennials — Together, cultivation. 

(2) Plan the garden — On paper during winter. 

(3) Rows far apart — Use horse for cultivating. 

(4) Similar plants should be together. 

(5) Neatness and beauty — Straight rows, symmetrical. 



94 INDUSTRIAL BOOKLETS 




% Figure 56. Preparing the soil for a school garden. 

4. Soil— 

(1) Sandy loam — Clay subsoil — 

(a) Rich soil — Barnyard manure well rotted. 

(b) Commercial fertilizers — Nitrate of soda, etc. 

(2) Southern slope — 

(a) Warmer in early spring. 

(b) Best for vines, ripening tomatoes, melons, etc. 

(3) Preparation for planting — 

(a) Plowed in fall — Kill weeds and insects. 

(b) Disked and harrowed in spring. 

(c) Free from clods, sticks, stones, etc. 

5. Hotbeds and Cold Frames — 
(1) Hotbed started early — 

(a) Size — As wide as sash used, and any length. 

(b) Location — South side of building or fence. 

(c) Manure — House manure, depth, a foot or more. 

(d) Glass — Use ordinary storm sash. 

(e) Ventilation — After seventy-five or eighty degrees. 

(f) Watering — Each morning. 

(g) Plants — Early plants for transplanting. 



HORTICULTURE BOOKLETS 95 

(2) Cold frame— 

(a) Use — For transplanting from hotbed. 

(b) Transplant to garden as desired. 

(c) Cover only when danger of frost. 

6. Planting Garden — 

(1) From cold frames — 

(a) For early use. 

(b) Main crop after danger of frost. 

(2) Hardy vegetables — 

(a) As early as ground can be worked. 

(b) Onions, carrots, peas, etc. 

(3) Main crop — Later than hardy varieties. 

(4) Vines — After danger of all frost is past. 

(5) For fall use — Late plantings. 

(6) Methods of planting — 

(a) Hand planting for small amounts. 

(b) Garden drill for large garden. 

(c) Firming — When ground is dry. 

7. Cultivation — 

(1) Hoeing and hand cultivators — 

(a) For small gardens. 

(b) After large cultivators in market gardens. 

(2) Horse cultivators — 

(a) More effective — Save time. 

(3) Time of cultivation — 

(a) Often enough to kill weeds. 

(b) After rain to conserve moisture. 

(c) From early spring to late fall. 

8. Friends and Foes — 
(1) Garden friends — 

(a) Animals — Toads, frogs, snakes, some birds. 

(b) Insects — Ladybug, bees, ants, ichneumen fly. 



96 



INDUSTRIAL BOOKLETS 




Figure 57. Caring for a school garden in the summer. 

(2) Garden foes — 

(a) Animals — Chickens, gophers, birds, etc. 

(b) Insects — Squash bug, potato beetle, cabbage 
butterfly, cutworm, etc. 

(c) Plant diseases — Potato scab and rot, etc. 

(d) Weeds — Consume nourishment and moisture. 

9. Harvesting — 

(1) As needed during growing season. 

(2) In the fall— 

(a) Care in gathering. 

(b) Selecting, grading, and storing. 

10. Suggestive Vegetables to Grow — 

(1) Tubers — Underground stems. (Potatoes) — 

(a) Early varieties — Early Rose, Early Ohio, Cobbler, 
Eureka Extra Early, Norton Beauty, and Triumph. 

(b) Late varieties — Burbank, Carmen, Rural, Walter 
Raleigh, and Pingree. 



HORTICULTURE BOOKLETS 

(2) Roots — Root of plant developed for food — 

(a) Require heavy rich soil. 

(b) Kinds — Carrots, parsnips, turnips, beets, 
'bagas, radish, sweet potatoes, and salsify. 

(3) Bulbs— 

(a) Onions — Several varieties, sandy loam. 

(4) Seed vegetables — 
(a) Peas and beans. 



07 



ruta- 




Figure 58. School garden products exhibited at fall contest. 



(5) Leaf plants — 

(a) Kinds — Cabbage, cauliflower, celery, lettuce, spin- 
ach, kohl-rabi, Swiss chard, cress and kale. 

(b) Special care needed for many of these. 

(6) Vines— 

(a) Planting time — Late, danger of frost. 

(b) Kinds — Watermelon, muskmelon, squash, pump- 
kin, citron and cucumber. 

(7) Herbs— 

(a) Used for flavoring. 



7— 



98 INDUSTRIAL BOOKLETS 

(b) Kinds — Sage, mint, summer and winter savories, 
lavender, anise, dill, and thyme. 

(8) Corn— 

(a) Sweet — For table use and canning. 

(b) Pop — For winter use. 

(9) Fruit vegetables — 

(a) Grown for the fruit of the plant. 

(b) Kinds — Tomatoes, ground cherries, etc. 
(10) Perennials — 

(a) Remain in garden from year to year. 

(b) Kinds — Rhubarb, horse radish, asparagus, etc. 

REFERENCES 

References on Vegetable Gardening may be obtained through 
the state and national Division of Publications. Good books for the 
library are Green's Vegetable Gardening, Gardening for Pleasure by 
Henderson, Success in Market-Gardening by Rawson, Productive 
Vegetable Growing by Lloyd, and Garden Farming by Corbett. 



CHAPTER V 
ANIMAL HUSBANDRY BOOKLETS 

All normal young people are interested in animals. The 
boy or girl who has not had a pet lamb, chicken, duck, colt, 
or some other animal has missed a great deal. Those who 
are not already fortunate enough to own some of these 
animals should decide which they prefer and make arrange- 
ments to begin to be live stock producers as soon as 
possible. Many find it more interesting, and sometimes 
more profitable, to raise live stock than to grow vegetables 
or grain. The training will be very valuable. If some do 
not own animals, they can study those belonging to others. 

The production of live stock is one of the greatest indus- 
tries in the country. With the present demand far in 
excess of the supply in nearly all branches of live stock, it 




Figure 59. Class doing field work in animal husbandry. 

would seem that something besides high prices is neces- 
sary to stimulate still greater interest in stock raising. The 
great ranges for feeding sheep and cattle are practically 

99 



100 INDUSTRIAL BOOKLETS 

gone. The bulk of the live stock for the markets must, 
therefore, be raised on the farms. Since stock raising is 
always more profitable than grain farming, and the produc- 
tion of a reasonable amount of live stock makes possible a 
well balanced rotation plan, animal husbandry would seem 
to be a very important subject for the rural schools, and to 
provide an excellent opportunity to do practical work in 
arithmetic, in computing rations, etc., and to get practice 
in composition in the booklet work. 

A great number of topics present themselves as suit- 
able for animal husbandry booklets. Among them are the 
following: Poultry for Pleasure and Profit, Farm Animals, 
The Care of Animals, Veterinary Science on the Farm, 
Swine, Sheep Raising, Horses, the Dairy, Creameries and 
Cheese Factories, Animal Diseases, Beef Raising, Silos and 
Silage, How to Feed Animals and Bee Culture. 

CATTLE 

Cattle raising on the western plains has been one of 
the great industries of this country. As the lands became 
settled for general farming the large ranches gradually 
disappeared. Since the great majority of the beef must 
now be produced on the small farm, this branch of animal 
husbandry is very important. Pure bred stock is always 
the cheapest in the end. In the study of this outline find 
out what kind of stock you have at home and what breeds 
are raised in the community. 

In the United States in 1914 there were 56,592,000 beef 
and dairy cattle valued at $2,234,820,000.00. 

1. Origin — 

(1) Most of our cattle are developed from English breeds. 

(2) From cross with American buffalo. 



ANIMAL HUSBANDRY BOOKLETS 



101 



2. Beef Breeds — 

(1) General features — 

(a) Block type, ability to take on flesh. 

(b) Low, broad, deep. 




Figure 60. Champion two year old Shorthorn cow — a beef type. 

(2) Shorthorn or Durham — 

(a) English origin. 

(b) Best known beef type. 

(3) Hereford— Called "white faces"— 

(a) English origin, large, over a ton. 

(b) Becoming very popular. 

(4) Aberdeen Angus — Hornless — 

(a) Scotch original. 

(b) Large proportion of meat when dressed. 

(5) Red Poll — Medium size, harmless — 

(a) English origin. 

(b) General purpose. 



102 



INDUSTRIAL BOOKLETS 



(6) Galloway — Hardy breed, hornless— 

(a) Scotch origin. 

(b) Hide used for robes. 

(7) Others — Devon, Brown Swiss. 

(8) Raising beef animals — 

(a) Breeding, housing, pasturing, fattening. 

(b) Marketing — Local and city markets. 

(9) The packing houses- 
fa) Location, products, by-products. 

(b) Comparison of prices with live stock. 

Dairy Breeds — 

(1) General features — 

(a) Angular in form. 

(b) Large udder. 

(c) Large capacity for turning feed into milk. 

(2) The Jersey — Most popular in United States- 
fa) Native to Island of Jersey. 

(b) Rich milk, not large quantity. 




fi£;:.:il!lllir ; ' s 



Figure 61. A pure bred Guernsey cow — a dairy type. 



ANIMAL HUSBANDRY BOOKLETS 103 

(3) Guernsey — Very popular in some sections — 

(a) Native to Island of Guernsey. 

(b) Milk yellow, more than of the Jersey. 

(4) Holstein-Friesians — 

(a) Originated in Holland. 

(b) Large flow of milk — Good cheese milk. 

(5) Ayrshire — 

(a) Scotch origin. 

(b) Much milk, not rich in butter-fat. 

(6) Other Breeds — Dutch Belted, Kerry, French Ca- 

nadian. 

(7) Care of dairy herd — 

(a) Breeding, housing, pasturing. 

(b) Balanced rations for dairy cattle. 

(c) Herd and individual record. 

(8) Dairy products — 

(a) Milk, cream, butter, cheese, etc. 

(b) High butter-fat records. 

(c) Laws regulating dairy products. 

(9) Machinery used — 

(a) Milking machines — Not in general use. 

(b) Cream separators — Keeping clean. 

(c) Apparatus for weighing and recording milk. 

(d) Babcock tester — To determine butter-fat. 

4. "Scrubs"— 

(1) These are mixed breeds and no breeds. 

(2) Are not profitable for milk or beef. 

5. Diseases of Cattle — 
(1) Tuberculosis — 

(a) Poorly ventilated barns. 



104 



INDUSTRIAL BOOKLETS 




..'.-'' 






msmm 



Figure 62. Modern and sanitary housing. 



(b) Tuberculin test — How given, results. 

(c) Transmitted in milk. 

(2) Anthrax — 

(a) Spores of germs very resistant. 

(3) Other diseases — 

(a) Blackleg, lockjaw, pneumonia. 

(4) Preventives — Sprays, fresh air. — 

(a) Disinfectants — Bichloride of mercury, chloride 

of lime, formaldehyde, carbolic acid, cresol. 

(b) How to disinfect stables. 

6. Value of Cattle— 

(1) To the farm— 

(a) Produce meat and dairy products. 

(b) Produce cheap fertilizer. 

(c) Permit a rotation plan to be followed. 

(2) To the nation — 

(a) Dairy products are second only to corn. 

(b) Beef cattle rank next to dairy products. 



ANIMAL HUSBANDRY BOOKLETS 105 

REFERENCES 

Beginnings in Animal Husbandry by Plumb, Typos and Breeds 
of Farm Animals by Plumb, and Dairy Cattle and Milk Production 
by Eckles. 

HOGS 

Corn, hogs and rotation of crops are very closely related 
in modern diversified farming. It is a principle of soil con- 
servation that all crops should be fed on the farm and the 
natural fertilizer returned to the soil. It is also usually 
more profitable to dispose of the crops in this manner than 
to sell them. The dairy to supply the milk for young pigs, 
clover for the growing period, and corn to fatten the hogs, 
are the chief means that, together with proper management, 
will insure success. Boys' pig contests are becoming almost 
as popular throughout the country as the acre yield corn 
contests. The making of a booklet on hogs should stimulate 
interest in a contest, 
bacon? 

In the United States in 1914 there were 58,935,000 hogs 
valued at $612,951,000.00. 
1. Importance — 

(1) Relation to corn and grain growing. 




Figure 63. Lard type of hog. 



106 



INDUSTRIAL BOOKLETS 



3. 



Lard Type — 

(1) General feature — 

(a) Capable of taking on fat. 

(b) Thick body, short head, short legs. 

(2) Poland China— 

(a) Originated in Ohio. 

(b) Black, with white on face, tail and feet. 

(3) Berkshire — 

(a) English origin. 

(b) Erect ears, snout upturned. 

(4) Chester White— 

(a) Originated in Pennsylvania. 

(b) Drooping ears — Rather slow maturing. 

(5) Duroc Jersey — 

(a) American origin. 

(b) Red color, ears droop forward. 

Bacon Type — 

(1) General features — ■ 

(a) Produced for side meat or bacon. 

(b) Long body and legs, long snout. 













;^Mg!§t|g 














'"'A. ' 


^x 


■|?|N 




SI 




>intw\$S' wvZflk \ 





Figure 64. Bacon type of hog. 



ANIMAL HUSBANDRY BOOKLETS 



107 



4. 



(2) Large Yorkshire — 

(a) English origin. 

(b) White color, ears erect, large size. 

(3) Tamworth— 

(a) English breed. 

(b) Red color, long deep body, long snout. 

(4) Other breeds — 

(a) The Thin Rind, or Hampshire. 

(b) The Razor-backs of the South. 
Breeding — 

(1) Select a breed and build it up — 

(a) By selection. 

(b) By new blood. 




Figure 65. Modern bog house. 



5. .Housing — 

(1) Hog houses — How built. 

(2) Keeping clean. 

6. Care of Young Pigs. 

7. Feeds and Feeding — 

(1) For growing. 

(2) For fattening. 

(3) Balanced rations. 



108 INDUSTRIAL BOOKLETS 

8. Diseases of Hogs — 

(1) Cholera — Causes, remedies, preventives. 

(2) Other diseases. 

9. Curing Pork — 

(1) At the packing houses — 

(a) Products and by-products. 

(2) On the farm— 

(a) Salted pork. 

(b) Dried pork. 

(c) Smoked hams and bacon. 

REFERENCES 

Beginnings in Animal Husbandry by Plumb, Types and Breeds 
of Farm Animals by Plumb, Productive Swine Husbandry by Day, 
and Swine Husbandry by Coburn. 

HORSES 

The theory and history of the evolution of the horse 
are very interesting. Comparatively few school students 
are able to recognize the different types and breeds of horses. 
The characteristics of each should be learned so that one 
can determine what breeds one sees on the road and in the 
fields. While this is an age of automobiles, the horse is 
still with us and is here to stay. The outline should be 
carefully studied. A booklet on horses would be well 
worth the time it takes to develop it. 

In the United States in 1914 there were 20,962,000 
horses valued at $2,291,638,000.00. 

1. History of the Horse — 
(1) Prehistoric horse — 

(a) Twelve different stages shown by fossils from 
five toes to solipeds. 



ANIMAL HUSBANDRY BOOKLETS 



109 



(b) Driven from early home in woods by other 
animals, and life on plains developed the single 

toe of the hoof. 

(c) Original horse only the size of fox. 
(2) Historic horse — 

(a) First mentioned in 1712 B. C. when Joseph ex- 

changed horses for corn. 

(b) Xenephon described a war horse. 

(c) First domesticated in Egypt and Arabia. 

(d) American horses all imported. The "Broncho" 

escaped from early Spanish explorers. 

Uses — 

(1) Probably first used in war by the ancients. 




Figure G6. A pure bred Percheron — a draft type. 



110 INDUSTRIAL BOOKLETS 

(2) Later used in chariot races by Greeks and Romans. 

(3) Valuable for farm work. 

(4) Hauling loads and vehicles. 

(5) Saddle and driving horses. 

3. Types— 

(1) Draft: Suited to farm work and heavy hauling — 

(a) Percheron — Most popular in America, native of 

France; gray and black in color; docile; active, 
and have excellent feet. 

(b) Clydesdale — Draft horse of Scotland and pop- 

ular in America; color usually bay or brown, 
rapid walkers; "feathery" legs. 

(c) Belgian — Bred in Belgium; broad back; short 

legs; small feet; chestnut bay and brown color. 

(d) English Shire — Popular in England; short legs, 

large feet; slow walker; bay or brown with 
white lower legs and forehead. 

(e) Suffolk — Originated in Suffolk county, England; 

common farm horse of that country; chestnut 
color; small ears; powerful body. 

(f) French draft — Larger than Percheron, but not 

so popular. 

(2) Coach: Stylish and lighter than draft horses — 

(a) Hackney — Blocky form; gait attractive; several 

colors; "high stepper;" most popular carriage 
horse. 

(b) German — Not well established in America; long 

neck and legs; general purpose horse. 

(c) French — Long stride; good action, various color; 

popular in France. 

(d) Cleveland Bay — English origin; largest of type; 

bay in color; poor action. 



ANIMAL HUSBANDRY BOOKLETS 111 

(3) Roadster: Small head and pointed ears; speed — 
(a) American Trotter or Standard Bred — Most noted 

families are Hamblctonians, Clays, Morgans, 
Pilots and Hal's American Breed. 

(4) Saddlers: Saddle or Harness Horse — 

(a) Arabian — Original breed; speed type. 

(b) Thoroughbred — English saddle horse. 

(c) American — From Arabian and thoroughbreds. 

(5) Pony: Small horses of both draft and speed types — 

(a) Shetland — Shetland Islands; gentle for children. 

(b) Welch— Wales. 

(c) Indian ponies — Western U. S. 

(d) Mustang broncho — Western plains. 

(6) Hybrids— 

(a) Mules — Not a true breed; cross between a donkey 
and horse, hardy; long lived; fine draft animals. 

4. Care of Horses — 

(1) Proper shelter. 

(2) Feeding. 

(3) Training. 

REFERENCES 

Beginnings in Animal Husbandry by Plumb, Types and Breeds of 
Farm Animals by Plumb, Productive Horse Husbandry by Gay. 

BIRDS THAT I KNOW 

Audubon societies are becoming very popular nowadays 
and a great deal of interest is shown in birds. The boy who 
uses his sling-shot as a pastime in killing innocent birds is 
soon outlawed by the others, and properly so. Manual 
training and the making of bird houses in the schools have 
increased the interest in our common birds. There are 
but very few birds that are more injurious than bene- 
ficial. All but two or three of them are entitled to our 



112 INDUSTRIAL BOOKLETS 

protection. The beautiful passenger pigeon has just become 
extinct. Not long ago these birds were slaughtered and 
sold for a penny each. This is merely an example of what 
will happen to most of our feathered friends, if the boys 
and girls of this generation do not learn to know the birds 
and recognize their value. 

1. Classes of birds — 

(1) Land birds. 

(2) Water birds. 

(3) Game birds. 

(4) Birds of prey. 

2. Migration — 

(1) Birds that do not migrate. 

(2) Birds that go south for the winter. 

(3) Make a table of migration showing dates. 

3. Bird Protection — 

(1) National and state laws. 

(2) Dangers from cold and wet. 

(3) Cats and other animals. 

(4) Bird houses. 

4. Bird Study— 

(1) From books. 

(2) In the field. 

(3) Field glasses. 

(4) Note book. 

5. Injurious Birds; Destroy — 

(1) English sparrow — 

(a) Feeds on grains almost entirely. 

(b) Common in every community. 

(2) Kingfisher — 

(a) Blue-gray in color; loud, harsh call. 



ANIMAL HUSBANDRY BOOKLETS 113 

(b) Around ponds, lakes and rivers. 

(c) Feeds on fish, frogs, lizards. 
(3) American crow. 

(a) The common black crow. 

(b) More injurious than beneficial. 

Beneficial Birds: Protect — 

(1) House wren — 

(a) Brown color; small. 

(b) Feeds wholly upon insects. 

(2) Song sparrow — 

(a) Most abundant of all our birds; pleasing song. 

(b) Larger than English sparrow; reddish brown back. 

(c) Feeds on insects, grass and weed seeds. 

(3) Orchard oriole — 

(a) Male, chestnut and black; female, yellowish and 

gray; 7^ inches long. 

(b) Feeds on insects chiefly : about 15% fruit and grain. 

(4) Bank swallow — 

(a) Lives in holes in banks of earth; smallest of 

swallows. 

(b) Feeds wholly on insects. 

(5) Barn swallow — 

(a) Builds nests in barns and other buildings. 

(b) Most graceful and beautiful of swallows. 

(c) Feeds on insects almost entirely. 

(6) Blue jay— 

(a) Very beautiful; large; noisy. 

(b) Feeds on insects, mice, weed seed and grain. 

(7) Cardinal— 

(a) Male, red; female, gray. 

(b) Feeds on insects and weed seed. 

(8) Red-winged blackbird — 



114 INDUSTRIAL BOOKLETS 

(a) Male, black with red shoulders; females, brownish 

black. 

(b) Feeds on cutworms, grasshoppers, plant lice, 

grain, fruit and small animals. 

(9) Red-headed woodpecker — 

(a) Adults have entire head and breast red. 

(b) Feeds on injurious insects, wild fruit, weed seed, 

birds' eggs. 

(10) Killdeer— 

(a) Easily recognized by its call. 

(b) Feeds entirely upon injurious insects. 

(11) Quail, or "Bob White"— 

(a) The common game bird of America. 

(b) Feeds on weed seed, injurious insects, fruits and 

grain. 




Figure 67. Owl with prey. 

(12) Dove— 

(a) Useful for food, but should be protected. 



ANIMAL HUSBANDRY BOOKLETS 115 

(b) Feeds on weed seed chiefly, and grains left on the 
ground in the fields. 

(13) Screech owl — 

(a) Very useful; recognized from call. 

(b) Feeds on rats, English sparrows, cutworms, 

caterpillars, crickets, etc. 

(14) Barn owl — 

(a) Found around buildings. 

(b) Feeds on mice, rats, rabbits, etc. 

(15) Buzzard — 

(a) Beneficial to public health. 

(b) Feeds almost entirely upon carrion. 

(16) Humming bird — 

(a) Very small, not much larger than bumble bee. 

(b) Feeds on gnats, ants, parasitic wasps, as well as 

nectar from trees and flowers. 

(17) Cowbird— 

(a) Male, greenish black with brown head; female, 

dull gray. Lays eggs in other birds' nests and 
leaves young to be cared for. 

(b) Found among cattle, hence the name. Feeds on 

gnats, flies and other insects. 

(18) Meadow lark— 

(a) Beautiful songster; brown back, yellow under. 

(b) Found perched on post or other object. 

(c) Feeds on insects chiefly. 

(19) Hawk— 

(a) Several kinds. 

(b) Nearly all feed on insects, mice, gophers and 

other small animals. 



116 



INDUSTRIAL BOOKLETS 




Figure 68. Marsh hawk. 



REFERENCES 

Our Common Birds and How to Know Them by Grant, Our 
Native Birds by Lange, Bird Neighbors by Blanchan, and Field Book 
of American Wild Birds and Their Music by Mathews. 



CHAPTER VI. 
HOME ECONOMICS BOOKLETS 

Industrial education has not neglected the girls. Nor 
should it. What is there more valuable for the average 
young woman to know than systematic and scientific home 
making. Notice there is a difference between housekeeping 
and home making. Most women are housekeepers, but not 
nearly all are home makers. If the school is doing work 
in home training such as sewing, cooking and serving of hot 
lunches, it will be a pleasure to make some of this work the 
basis for booklet work. If none of these things is being 
done in school, it is all the more necessary to do these at 
home and study them in that way. While most of the out- 
lines for booklets given in the other subjects should be of 
value to girls as well as boys, the topics in home economics 
are especially for girls. 

A suggestive list of topics suitable for booklets is given: 
Household Management, Home Sanitation, Home Con- 
veniences, Flies and Their Control, The Kitchen Garden, 
Home Decoration, Home Furnishings, Contagious and Infec- 
tious Diseases, Human Foods, Canning Without Powders, 
Bread Baking, Egg Cookery, The Fireless Cooker, Paper 
Bag Cookery, Pure Milk, Dairy Products, Garment Making, 
The Clothes Moth, How Needles and Pins Are Made, But- 
ton Manufactures, How Cloth Is Made, How Common Salt 
Is Made, Curing Meats. 

FLIES AND THEIR CONTROL 

"Swat the Fly" has become a national slogan, because 
it is now realized that the fly is not only a filthy pest but 

117 



118 INDUSTRIAL BOOKLETS 

also a dangerous enemy of good health. Flies are very 
often responsible for several of our worst germ diseases. 
There is no reason why flies cannot be controlled as soon as 
the general public is sufficiently enlightened in modern 
sanitation. This subject affects us closely. 

1. Classification — 

(1) Diptera, or two-winged. 

(2) Biting and lapping insects. 

2. House Fly, or Typhoid Fly— 

(1) Home— 

(a) In filthy places. 

(b) In barns and houses. 

(2) Disease carrier — 

(a) Typhoid fever. 

(b) Tuberculosis. 

(c) Dysentery. 

(3) Sources of disease germs — 

(a) Outhouses. 

(b) Dead animals, dump grounds. 

(c) Barnyard manure. 

(d) Garbage cans. 

(e) Infected persons. 

(f) Spitting on walks, floors, etc. 

(4) Life history of fly — 

(a) Adult lives over winter in warm place. 

(b) Pupa is protected over winter. 

(c) Emerges first warm days of spring. 

(d) Female lays about one hundred eggs. 

(e) Maggots hatch in eight hours. 

(f) Maggots full grown in six days. 

(g) Pupa stage three to five days. 

(h) Full grown fly in about twelve days. 

(5) Rate of increase enormous — 

(a) Figure the increase of one fly for season. 

(b) Checked only by natural means. 



HOME ECONOMICS BOOKLETS 119 

(6) Control of flies— 

(a) Screens — For doors, windows, outhouses. 

(b) Allow no barnyard manure to collect. 

(c) Remove all garbage piles. 

(d) Have garbage pail with cover. 

(e) Have septic tank — Do away with outhouses. 

(f) Poison with formalin in milk and water mixture. 

(g) Protect all food. 

(h) Fly contests — Children collecting for prizes. 

(7) Flytraps— 

(a) The Minnesota trap — Agricultural Experiment 

Station. 

(b) Homemade traps — Cost a few cents. 

(c) Quite effective. 

(d) Bait important — Bread and milk, meat. 

3. Stock Flies— 

(1) Varieties — 

(a) Horn flies — Cluster around horns of cattle. 

(b) Stable flies — Resemble house fly, but bite. 

(c) The botfly — Maggot attached to stomach of 

horse. 

(2) Feeding habits — 

(a) Blood of animals. 

(b) Nectar of flowers. 

(3) Preventives — 

(a) Currying horses and cattle. 

(b) Solution with strong odor. 

(c) Darkened stables. 

(d) Sprays. 

(e) Ointments and kerosene. 

REFERENCES 

Bulletins and books on insects, sanitation, etc. 



120 INDUSTRIAL BOOKLETS 

HOUSEHOLD FRIENDS AND FOES 

Some folk dust for fear their neighbors will think them 
untidy housekeepers if they do not. Such persons often 
use the feather duster to save time. Those who know what 
dust is realize that such methods merely stir up the du:st 
to be breathed by those in the house, with cold or other 
disease likely to follow. They use a damp cloth and are 
careful not to allow any dust to accumulate, whether visible 
or not. Dust is now known to be one of the very best means 
for the development of disease germs. Poorly lighted and 
ventilated rooms make the situation so much the worse. 
Fortunately, not all bacteria are our foes, many are our 
friends. A study of the outline and references will make 
one familiar with each. 

1. Dust— 

(1) Where found — 

(a) City homes — Street dust. 

(b) Country homes — Road and field dust. 

(c) Ships at sea — Coal and meteoric dust. 

(d) Everywhere — Atmosphere. 

(2) Necessity of dust — 

(a) No life without dust. 

(b) No light without dust particles. 

(3) Movements of dust — 

(a) By winds. 

(b) By objects in motion. 

(4) Composition of dust — 

(a) Particles of earth, wood and coal. 

(b) Bits of clothing, house furnishings, etc. 

(c) Particles resulting from wear of all things. 

(d) Numerous germs. 

(5) Dust "gardens"— 

(a) For experimenting with dust. 



HOME ECONOMICS BOOKLETS 121 

(b) Moist bread in warm place — Keep covered. 

(c) Moist meat kept warm — Cover with glass — 

Watch. 

(d) Keep milk in warm place — Watch changes. 

(e) Place piece of meat in covered dish — Boil half 
hour, keep out air, no change. 

(f) Canned goods do not spoil — Why? 
2. Bacteria Dust Plants — 

(1) Where found. 

(2) Kinds— 

(a) Rod shaped — Bacilli. 

(b) Ball shaped — Cocci. 

(c) Spiral shaped — Spirilla. 

(3) Classification as plants — 

(a) Because they can live on mineral matter. 

(b) Animals cannot do this. 

(4) Life history — 

(a) Multiply very rapidly — Millions in twenty-four 

hours. 

(b) Reproduce by simple division. 

(c) Food — Milk, meat juices, fruit, sweets, animals, 

man. 

(d) Mostly parasites — Live on prepared food. 

(e) Digest their food and throw off waste products. 

(f) Cause changes in food products. 

(g) Cause diseases — Waste products are poisonous. 

(5) Size of bacteria — 

(a) Never seen with naked eye. 

(b) Some require very powerful microscopes. 

(c) Great number make up for small size. 

(6) Power of movement — 

(a) Some are stationary. 

(b) Jerky movements — Slow motion. 

(c) Whip-like projections — Cilia. 



122 INDUSTRIAL BOOKLETS 

(7) Spore state — 

(a) Some bacteria can remain dormant for years. 

(b) This is called the "spore stage." 

(c) Difficult to kill such species. 

(d) Others cannot do this. 

(e) These are easily destroyed. 

(8) How destroyed — 

(a) Most forms by boiling or baking. 

(b) By direct sunlight and fresh air. 

(c) By medical treatment. 

(9) Economy in nature— 

(a) Some are very useful. 

(b) Some are very harmful. 

3. Yeast Dust Plants — 

(1) Size and structure— 

(a) Much larger than bacteria. 

(b) Single cell — Living plant — Budding. 

(2) Requirements for growth — 

(a) Moist, warm place. 

(b) Temperature from 70° to 90° F. 

(c) Killed with heat at about 130° F. 

(d) Can stand more cold than heat. 

(3) Economy in nature — 

(a) Used in bread making. 

(b) The CO 2 given off raises the bread. 

(c) Used in breweries. 

4. Mold Dust Plants— 

(1) Life history — 

(a) Spores — Correspond to seeds of higher plants. 

(b) Present in dust at all times. 

(2) Requirements for growth. 

(3) Economy in nature — 

(a) Useful in making Limburger cheese, etc. 

(b) Harmful — Cause ringworm, thrush, liver spots. 



HOME ECONOMICS BOOKLETS 123 

5. How Dust Plants Arc Useful — 

(1) Bacteria as scavengers. 

(2) Bacteria in the soil — Nitrogen. 

(3) In commercial world — 

(a) Dyeing industries. 

(b) Flax manufactures. 

(c) Curing and tanning. 

(4) In producing flavors. 

(5) Butter making. 

(6) Cheese making. 

(7) Vinegar production. 

6. Injurious Dust Plants — 

(1) Bacteria cause diseases — 

(a) Typhoid fever. 

(b) Tuberculosis. 

(c) Diphtheria. 

(d) Other diseases. 

(2) Infectious or contagious diseases — 
(a) Explain how caused. 

(3) The "spoiling" of food stuffs. 

(4) Preventives — 

(a) Preserving foods. 

(b) Pasteurization. 

REFERENCES 

Bacteria, Yeasts and Molds by Conn, Household Bacteriology by 
Buchanan, Bacteria in Relation to Country Life by Lipman, and Dust 
and Its Dangers by Prudden. 

BREAD BAKING 

This is one of the things every girl should learn to do 
well. Experience alone will not produce good bread bakers. 
The scientific principles must be understood. No experi- 
ment should be more interesting than that of learning to 



124 



INDUSTRIAL BOOKLETS 



bake bread. If there are no facilities at school, the 
work should be done at home and told in the booklet on 
"Bread Baking." Local and state contests should be en- 
couraged. Minnesota has just completed a bread baking 
contest with over eighty counties represented and more 
than sixteen hundred contestants. Complete directions are 
given in Volume III, Number 7, Rural School Agriculture, 
published by the Minnesota Extension Division. The out- 
line here given is based upon the suggestions given in that 
publication. 



1. 



2. 



Origin and History of Bread Making- 

(1) Early unleavened bread. 

(2) Leavened bread known by ancients. 

Kinds of Bread — 

(1) Make from what sources. 

(2) Methods of making. 

(3) In different countries. 

(4) Baker's bread — 

(a) Sometimes cheap flour, alum, etc. 




Figure G9. Prize winning bread in competition with over sixteen hundred entries. 



OTHER BOOKLETS 125 

(5) Homemade bread — 
(a) Pure and wholesome. 

3. Essential Factors in Bread Baking — 

(1) Flour— 

(a) Bread is light because wheat contains gluten. 

(b) No other grain contains gluten of desirable 

quality. 

(c) White flour mixed with rye to make it light. 

(2) Yeast— 

(a) Dust plant found in the air. 

(b) Used commercially. 

(c) Gives off CO 2 (carbonic dioxide) which raises 

the bread. 

(d) Compressed yeast — Very active, will not keep. 

(e) Dry yeast — Cakes soaked, bread sponge. 

(f) Liquid yeast — Homemade, "starter/' potatoes. 

(3) Liquids — 

(a) Milk — Better crust usually. 

(b) Water — Often used. 

(c) Potato water — From white potatoes. 

(d) Buttermilk — Sometimes an unpleasant flavor. 

4. Other Ingredients — 

(1) Sugar- 

(a) Food for yeast plant — Hastens rising. 

(b) Two teaspoonfuls to a loaf of bread. 

(2) Salt— 

(a) Used for flavor. 

(b) One teaspoonful to a loaf. 

(3) Shortening, or fat — 

(a) Makes bread more tender. 

(b) One or two teaspoonfuls to a loaf. 

5. Best Results Obtained — 

(1) By having good materials. 



126 INDUSTRIAL BOOKLETS 

(2) Constant care. 

(3) Correct temperature. — 

(a) 75° F. to 95° F. 

(b) Easily killed if above 95° F. 

(c) Rises too slowly if below 75° F. 

(d) Need of thermometer. 

6. The Short Process— 

(1) Time: four to six hours. 

(2) Compressed yeast used. 

(3) Proportions for one loaf — 

(a) Milk or water, one cupful. Flour, 3J^ cupfuls. 
Compressed yeast 3^2 cake. Salt, 1 teaspoon- 
ful. Sugar, 2 teaspoonfuls. Fat, 1 teaspoon- 
ful. 

(4) Milk or water heated to 95° F. 

(5) Put warm liquid over yeast cake to soften. 

(6) Balance of liquid over other ingredients. 

(7) Add yeast and flour — Mix on board. 

(8) Place in well oiled pan in water at 100° F. 

(9) Bread should rise until double its bulk. 

(10) Knead from three to five minutes — Distribute gas. 

(11) Shape loaf and put in oiled pan. 

(12) Bake from forty-five minutes to one hour. 

7. The Long Process — 

(1) Set sponge at night — Keep warm. 

(2) Proportions for one loaf — 

(a) Milk or water, 1 cupful. Flour, 3J^ cupfuls. 
Yeast,. 34 cake. Salt, 1 teaspoonful. Sugar, 
2 teaspoonfuls. Fat, 1 teaspoonful. 

(3) Proceed as in short method. 

8. Homemade Yeast — 

(1) Boiling water, one cupful. Flour, 4 teaspoonfuls. 
Sugar, 1 teaspoonful. Yeast, 1 cake. 



OTHER BOOKLETS 127 

(2) Mix flour with boiling potato water. 

(3) Add one fourth of a cup of mashed potato, and sugar. 

(4) Add yeast cake and one half of a cup of water at 

75° F. 

(5) Let stand twenty-four hours — Stir. 

9. Score Card for Judging — 
(1) Total hundred points — 

(a) General appearance — Twenty points. 

(b) Flavor — Odor and taste, thirty-five points. 

(c) Lightness — Yeast killed, fifteen points. 

(d) Crumb — Texture, color, grain, thirty points. 

REFERENCES 

Domestic Science: Principles and Application by Bailey, Chemistry 
of Bread Making by Grant, and almost all standard works on this sub- 
ject. 



CHAPTER VII 
OTHER BOOKLETS FOR RURAL SCHOOLS 

These are other topics of sufficient interest for booklet 
work that do not come under any of the preceding chapters. 
A few are suggested: 

Good Roads, Cement and Its Uses on the Farm, Pre- 
servatives for Wood, Tools and Their Uses, Drainage, Taxes, 
The Resources of Our State, Imports and Exports of the 
United States, The American School System, The Modern 
Home, Farming as a Business, Patent Medicines, The Value 
of Farmers' Clubs, Consolidation of Rural Schools, Indus- 
trial Contests, Our Trees and Woods, and Railroads. 

WOOD PRESERVATIVES AND SUBSTITUTES 

The high cost of lumber and fence posts has made the 
use of wood preservatives necessary. Of course we all 
know that paint both preserves and beautifies wood. It is 
only recently, however, that timbers, poles, posts, and rail- 
road ties have been treated with some kind of preservative. 
Iron, cement and other materials are being substituted for 
wood. Do you know why a fence post rots off at the sur- 
face of the ground, when the parts above and below may be 
sound? 

1. Causes of Decay of Wood — 

(1) Weathering — Water, wind, etc. 

(2) Fungi — Small plant organisms. 

2. Increase in Cost of Wood — 
(1) Lumber — 

(a) Scarcity in many parts of country. 

(b) Some kinds can no longer be obtained. 

128 



OTHER BOOKLETS 



129 



(2) Posts— 

(a) Scarcity of timber. 

(b) Great demand — Fencing, railroads, telephone. 

3. More Profitable to Preserve Wood — 

(1) Than to buy new material. 

(2) Than to use other materials than wood. 

4. Paints — 

(1) How made — White lead, oil, coloring. 

(2) For houses — Outside. 

(3) For other buildings — Cheaper grade. 

(4) Inside paints — How different. 

(5) Cost — Always cheaper to paint than not to. 

5. Varnishes — 

(1) How made — Shellac, wood filler, etc. 

(2) For carriages, automobiles, etc. 

(3) Indoor varnishes. 

(4) For furniture. 

(5) For floors. 

6. Oil and Wax— 

(1) For floors. 

(2) For furniture. 

(3) Other uses. 

7. Preservatives 

Posts — 

(1) Cause of rot 
base — 

(a) Dampness. 

(b) Soil bacteria. 

(2) Substitutes for wooden posts — 

(a) Iron — Too expensive. 

(b) Cement — Limited to soil without alkali. 




Figure 70. Cement fence posts. 



130' INDUSTRIAL BOOKLETS 

(3) Durability of posts depends upon — 

(a) Kind of wood. 

(b) Rate of growth. 

(c) Age of tree. 

(d) How seasoned. 

(4) Prevention of rot — 

(a) Exclude air and moisture. 

(b) Poison wood and kill fungi. 

(5) Old methods— 

(a) Charring — Good, but takes time. 

(b) Whitewash — Not durable. 

(c) Paint — Ground moisture softens it. 

(d) Coal tar — Applied with brush. 

(e) Poisoning post at ground — Dangerous. 

(6) Other methods — 

(a) Mineral salts — Zinc chloride, copper sulphate, 

bichloride of mercury. Objections to these 
are that they are washed out by rains. 

(b) Heavy oils — Coal tar and petroleum. These are 

best. 

8. The Creosote Preservative — 

(1) The pressure process — 

(a) Used in railroad ties, timbers, etc. 

(b) Requires expensive apparatus. 

(2) The non-pressure process — Open tank — 

(a) Small portable tank. 

(b) Plant not very expensive. 

(c) Dry, soft wood posts used. 

(d) Cost of treatment — Seven to ten cents. 

(e) Posts last twenty to thirty years. 

(f) Cheapest kind of post in long run. 

(g) Makes cottonwood as effective as red cedar. 



OTHER BOOKLETS 



131 



GOOD ROADS 

Every young person should become interested in the 
good road movement. There is nothing more helpful to a 
community than good roads, and nothing more detrimental 
to it than bad roads. Road making is a science and should 
be done only under the direction of competent engineers. 
The upkeep, however, should be assumed by the local 
authorities. Learn the use of the road drag. Watch it 
work and note the results after a rain. 

1. History of Good Road Movement — 

(1) In Europe — 

(a) Famous roads in history. 

(2) In the United States— 

(a) Bicycles and automobiles — Influences. 

2. Good Roads Cheaper Than Poor— 

(1) Poor roads always need repairs. 

(2) Comparison of loads hauled over each. 




Figure 71. A very bad road. 



132 



INDUSTRIAL BOOKLETS 



3. Road Construction — 

(1) Under direction of competent engineer — 

(a) The "pathmaster" not ordinarily qualified. 

(b) Has made special study of this work. 

(2) Laid out as straight as possible — 

(a) In the middle West usually one mile apart. 

(3) The roadbed— 

(a) Well graded and rounded. 

(b) No sods left in roadbed. 

(c) Ditches at sides for drainage. 

(d) Proper grade established. 

(4) Surfacing — 

(a) With top soil in sandy regions. 

(b) With sand or gravel in clay soils. 

(c) Gravel or crushed rock — Best. 

4. Care of Roads — 

(1) Road over- 
seers. 

(2) Use of split 
log drag. 

(3) Ordinary 

"road work" 
not well 
done. 

(4) Contracting 
for upkeep a 
better plan. 

5. Classes of Roads 
(1) National 

highways — 

(a) The Cumberland road. 

(b) In national parks. 




Figure 72. The split log drag 



OTHER BOOKLETS 133 

(2) State roads — 

(a) State Highway Commission. 

(b) Jurisdiction and duties. 

(3) County roads — 

(a) County commissioners. 

(b) Jurisdiction and duties. 

(4) Township roads — 

(a) Supervisors. 

(b) Jurisdiction and duties. 

6. Road Maintenance — 

(1) State aid for state roads — 

(a) How is work done? 

(b) What constitutes a state road? 

(2) County road and bridge fund — 

(a) Direct tax in each county. 

(b) Levied by commissioners usually. 

(c) Where and how spent. 

(3) Town road and bridge fund — 

(a) Direct tax in each township. 

(b) How administered. 

DRAINAGE 

The modern business farmer has learned that it is often 
cheaper and wiser to drain some of the land he already has 
rather than to buy more land. Drainage is one of the per- 
manent improvements on the farm. The results will 
usually pay for the extra cost in a short time. If you will 
make a plat or chart of your farm, or some other, and bring 
it for class discussion of drainage, some interesting facts 
may be learned. Find out the cost and results of drainage 
on some of the farms in the neighborhood. 



134 



INDUSTRIAL BOOKLETS 



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Figure 73. A field in need of drainage. 



1. Improvements — 

(1) Temporary — 

(a) Fencing. 

(b) Buildings. 

(2) More permanent — 

(a) Drainage. 

(b) Irrigation. 

2. Drainage Cheaper Than More Land — 

(1) Drained land is the richest land. 

(2) Drained for twenty to thirty dollars an acre. 

(3) Intensive, not extensive, farming pays. 

3. Open Ditches — 

(1) Necessary where large areas are low. 

(2) Land not wasted when used for these — 



OTHER BOOKLETS 



131 



(a) Adjoining 
land more pro- 
ductive. 

(b) All can be 
cultivated. 

4. Planning Drain- 
age Systems — 

(1) Land surveyed 

(2) Maps platted. 

(3) The lay of the 
land. 

5. Construction — 

(1) The "fall"— 
(a) The water 

runs by grav- 
ity. 

(2) Proper depth 
and width. 

(3) Competent 
drainage engineer — 

(a) It doesn't pay to "guess" about tile. 

6. Kinds of Drainage — 

(1) Open ditches — 

(a) Remove surface water. 

(b) Cheaply constructed. 

(c) Use plow and scraper. 

(d) Rains will show where needed. 

(2) Underdrainage — 

(a) Permanent, and gives best results. 

(b) More expensive — Cost of tile. 

(c) Stones sometimes used. 




Figure 74. Open ditch used to lower level of a 
lake and water table in the land . 



136 



INDUSTRIAL BOOKLETS 



7. 



8. 



9. 



(d) Tiling best. 

(e) How the 
tile works. 

(f) Size of tile 
— Depends 
upon surface 
conditions, 
grade, and 
depth. 

Tools Used— 

(1) The level and 
stakes — 

(a) Running 
lines and fix- 
ing grades. 

(2) Skeleton spade, 

long handled 
shovel, solid 




Figure 75 

spade, tile scoop, tile hook. 
Laying the Tile — 

(1) Begin at outlet and lay up stream. 

(2) Care of laterals — Connections. 

(3) Blinding — Covering, to hold in place 

(4) Protection for outlet — Screen, box. 

(5) Filling the trenches. 
Conclusion — 

(1) Examples of profitable drainage. 



Putting in tile drainage. 



REFERENCES 

Agricultural Engineering by Davidson, Farm Drainage by French, 
Engineering for Land Drainage by Elliott, and Practical Farm Drainage 
by Elliott. 

IRRIGATION AND DRY FARMING 

An authority makes the statement that two fifths of 
the area of the United States is too dry to produce good 
crops without some form of artificial aid. Much of this 



OTHER BOOKLETS 



137 



vast area is very fertile, as the plant foods have not been 
washed away by heavy rainfall. Any means by which 
these regions can be made to produce even fair yields will 
be of great importance to the nation. 

Thus far irrigation and dry farming have proved their 
effectiveness in reclaiming limited areas, by producing enor- 
mous crops on lands previously regarded as worthless. 
Only about two million acres have been irrigated so far, or 
about one thousandth part of the dry region. It can easily 
be seen what the reclamation of the rest of this land would 
mean to the West, and that a special study of this important 
phase of agriculture should be made by the rising generation. 

The Unites States 
government has en- 
couraged the move- 
ment by spending 
millions of dollars in 
constructing large 
reservoirs to irrigate 
the lands in certain 
areas. This work has 
been done at a cost 
of about eighteen dol- 
lars an acre. The 
land is sold to settlers 
and the money used 
as a circulating fund 
to carry on the work. 
The plan is commend- 
able, and fourteen 
states have been 
aided. 

In certain sec- 
tions, where it has not 

,i -i i , Figure 76. No mulch — no moisture. Crop a 

yet been possible to g failure. 




138 



INDUSTRIAL BOOKLETS 



irrigate, a method of 
cultivation known as 
dry farming has been 
used with excellent re- 
sults. This method 
has used the principles 
of the conservation of 
moisture in the soil, 
by the dust mulch and 
by fallowing. In some 
sections crops are pro- 
duced every year; in 
others, every other 
year; and in still oth- 
ers, two crops in three 
years. Larger areas 
can be cultivated with 
the same capital and 
labor than in the hu- 
mid regions of heavy 
soil. A common 
practice is to keep one 
half of the land under 

cultivation, preserving the dust blanket and holding the 
moisture while the other half produces a crop. It is not 
uncommon for a farmer to have a quarter section of crop 
and another quarter section in fallow, with little or no 
more labor than would be required for the one quarter in 
the heavy soils of the Mississippi Valley. In this way 
dry farming has already become a paying industry and 
its possibilities in the great West are practically unlimited. 




Figure 77. Notice dust mulch. Dark portion 
beneath shows moist soil. 



1. Necessity for Irrigation — 
(1) General causes of dry areas- 
(a) Prevailing winds. 



OTHER BOOKLETS 139 

(b) Local conditions. 

(c) Other causes. 

(2) Greater food production necessary — 

(a) As world's population increases. 

(b) As tillable lands are settled up. 

2. History of Irrigation — 

(1) Ancient — 

(a) Thousands of years B. C. 

(b) In Oriental countries. 

(c) Primitive methods. 

(2) Modern— 

(a) In India — large areas. 

(b) In Egypt. 

(c) In Italy. 

(d) In other countries. 

3. Methods Used in Irrigation — 

(1) Surface irrigation — 

(a) Water from lakes and streams. 

(b) From reservoirs. 

(c) Other sources. 

(2) Subirrigation — 

(a) By natural means — Undercurrents. 

(b) By artificial means — Tiling, etc. 

(3) Overhead irrigation — 

(a) Used in smaller areas. 

(b) Fruit lands. 

(c) Market gardening. 

(d) Mechanical devices — Engines, piping, etc. 

(e) Special systems. 

(4) Other methods of irrigation. 

4. Irrigation in the United States — 
(1) Arid regions — 

(a) Definition — Less than twenty inches of rainfall. 



140 INDUSTRIAL BOOKLETS 

(b) Where, in the United States. 

(2) Semi-arid regions — 

(a) Definition — Twenty to thirty inches of rainfall. 

(b) Where, in the United States. 

(3) Humid regions- 

(a) Definition — More than thirty inches of rainfall. 

(b) Where, in the United States. 

(4) Government projects — 

(a) Reclamation Act. 

(b) State projects. 

(c) Government reservoirs. 

(5) Cost of irrigation — 

(a) Millions spent by the government. 

(b) Eighteen dollars an acre for the government pro- 

jects in the West. 

(c) Plan of selling to settlers to reduce cost. 

(d) Overhead systems from fifty to two hundred dol- 

lars an acre. 

5. Results of Irrigation — 

(1) Large areas reclaimed — 

(a) Where? 

(b) Amount. 

(2) Value of products from irrigated lands— 

(a) In general. 

(b) Yields per acre. 

(3) Other results — 

6. "Dry" Farming — 

(1) Meaning of the term — 

(a) Conservation of moisture. 

(2) Reasons for dry farming — 

(a) Not enough moisture to crop annually. 

(b) Good crops raised by this method. 

(c) Demand for agricultural products increasing. 



OTHER BOOKLETS 141 

(d) No opportunity for irrigation . 

(3) Methods used- 

(a) Cultivation and tillage — Seed sown deep. 

(b) Crops seeded — Thin stand of grain. 

(c) Frequency of crops. 

(d) Portion of land cropped annually. 

(4) Character of the soil — 

(a) Sandy soils — Water too deep to be available. 

(b) Clay soils — Water runs off before penetrating. 

(c) Loams — Best for dry farming. 

(d) Humus — Greatly assists in conserving the mois- 

ture. 

(e) " Faulty" soils — Sand or gravel in subsoil; difficult 

to retain moisture. 

(5) Suitable crops for dry farming — 

(a) Early growth during period of greatest rainfall — 

Small grains, especially winter wheat and rye. 

(b) Most efficient use of moisture — Corn, milo maize, 

and alfalfa are best. 

(6) Results of dry farming — 

(a) Permanent results still uncertain. 

(b) Over two million acres in basin of Columbia River 

under cultivation. 

(c) Good crops grown in localities with only ten or 

twelve inches of rainfall. 

(d) Successful for nearly fifty years in some parts of 

West — Probably will be indefinitely. 



Agricultural Text Books 

FOR 

HIGH SCHOOLS 

This series of agricultural books, of which "Field Crops" is a representative, 
is planned especially for high schools in which agriculture is taught. The books con- 
stitute a complete four-year graded course in agriculture. Each book is complete 
in itself, and its scope is well within the limits of the course. They are written by 
men eminent in their line, and who are well known for their clear and concise pre- 
sentation of facts. Each of the books listed below have suggestive subjects for dis- 
cussion and demonstration at the close of each chapter. The series constitutes a 
complete, concise, and practical course that will meet the urgent needs of the modern 
agricultural high schools and of short courses in schools and colleges. 
Beginnings in Animal Husbandry, by Chas. S. Plumb, Professor of Animal Husbandry, 
Unlversily of Ohio, and Author of "Types and Breeds of Farm Animals," "Indian Corn 
Culture," etc. This is the first volume prepared on the subject of Animal Husbandry 
that is particularly adapted to agricultural students of high school grade. Professor Plumb 
has long been known as one of the leading instructors and investigators in the Animai 
Husbandry field, as a judge of live stock, and as a clear thinker and interesting writer on 
live stock subjects. In this volume he has concentrated the lessons of his many years' 
experience in teaching and experimentation. The matter is presented in a simple, practical 
manner that makes it particularly valuable for the purposes for which it is intended. 

Among the important subjects discussed are: The Importance of Animal Husbandry; 
Breeds of Horses, Cattle, Sheep, and Swine; Animal Type ana its Importance; Reasons and 
Methods of Judging Live Stock; Points of the Horse; Judging Horses, Cattle, Sheep, Swine, 
etc.; Heredity: Its Meaning and Influence; Selection and Its Importance; Pedigrees and 
Their Value; Suggestions to Young Breeders; Composition of Plants and Animals; Influence 
of Foods on the Body; Feeding Standards, Origin and Use; How to Calculate a Ration; 
Coarse Feeds and Their Values; Concentrated Feed and Their Value; Care of Farm Animals, 
Poultry: Types and Breeds, Judging, Feeding; Eggs and Incubation; Poultry Houses. 

Thi3 is a book of 393 pages, 216 illustrations, well printed and durably bound. Price 
$1.25 net. 
Soils and Soil Fertility, by A. R. Whitson, Professor of Soils, University of Wisconsin, and 
H. L. Walster, Instructor of Soils, University of Wisconsin. This is a book especially 
prepared as a text book on the subject of Soils for high school courses in agriculture and short 
courses in colleges. There are chapters on the following subjects: Conditions Essential 
to Plant Growth, Origin and Classification of Soils; Primary Relations of Soil and Plant; 
Nitrogen; Phosphorus and Potash; Soil Analyses; Farm Manures; Commercial Fertilizers; 
Physical Properties of Soils; Water Supply; Temperature and Ventilation of Soils; Drain- 
age; Erosion; Tillage; Humus; Relation of Crops to Climate and Soils; Soils of the United 
States; Management of Important Types of Soils; Dry Farming. The explicit language of 
this book and the avoidance of complicating scientific data and technical terms make it well 
within the comprehension of young students. They will find in it a fascinating study of 
soils and the practical ways of handling land to produce good crops. A well-chosen set 
of laboratory exercises and demonstrations, with complete directions, is also included. 
These are simple, easily carried out, and are fundamental. The book has 315 pages, well 
illustrated, printed on high-grade paper, bound durably in cloth. Price, $1.25 net. 
Agricultural Engineering, by J. B. Davidson, Professor of Agricultural Engineering, Iowa 
State College, and Joint Author of "Farm Machinery and Farm Motors." A practical 
elementary book on the subject of Rural Engineering for use in high schools. The funda- 
mental principles of agricultural engineering are presented in a simple, practical manner 
entirely within the comprehension of the young. 

Among the subjects discussed are: Agricultural Surveying, Drainage, Irrigation, Road 
Construction; Farm Machinery, including the Relation of Farm Machinery to Farm Opera- 
tions, Elements of Machines, Materials and Lubrications, Seeding Machinery, Harvesting 
Machinery; Tillage Machinery, Combined Harvester and Thrasher, Manure Spreaders, 
Haying Machinery, Threshing Machinery, Feed Cutters, Huskers and Shredders, Feed 
Mill3, Wagons, Buggies, Sleds, and Pump Machinery; Farm Mo'o-s, including Sources of 
Energy, Transformation of Energy, Prime Movers, and Hand Work; Wind Mills, Steam 
Engines, Steam and Gas Tractors, and Electric Motors; Farm Structures and Farm Sanita- 
tion, and Rope Work. This book contains 552 pages, with 342 illustrations from photo- 
graphs and drawings, printed on high grade paper from clear type, and is handsomely 
bound in durable cloth covers. Price, $1.50 net. 

Every effort has been made by authors and publishers to make these books 
interesting, practical, and reliable. Instructors, teachers, and students of agri- 
culture in general will find these books admirably suitable as text books and as 
sources of information and inspiration in these four great divisions of agriculture. 
Send all orders to WEBB PUBLISHING COMPANY, Saint Paul, Minnesota 



VEGETABLE GARDENING 

By SAMUEL B. GREEN, late Professor of Horticulture and Forestry, 
University of Minnesota. 

252 pages, profusely illustrated, cloth, $1.00, 

A manual on the growing of vegetables for home use and for the 
market. The immense sale of this book to farmers and gardeners, and 
its wide adoption for class-room work in agricultural schools and col- 
leges, prove it to be the standard work published on this subject. This 
is the 12th revised edition. We have a paper covered edition of this 
book which sells for 50c. 



DAIRY LABORATORY GUIDE 

By G. L. MARTIN, Professor of Dairying, North Dakota Agricultural 

College. 



140 pages, illustrated, cloth, 50c. 

This laboratory manual offers a carefully organized series of exer- 
cises covering the principles of modern dairy practice, with sugges- 
tions for their practical application. It covers the Production and Care, 
Testing, Manufacture, and Marketing, of Dairy Products. An indis- 
pensable guide for classes in Dairying and for Creamery men. 



SILOS: CONSTRUCTION AND SERVICE 

By M. L. KING, formerly Silo Expert, Iowa State College, and Orig- 
inator of the Iowa Silo. 



100 pages, well illustrated, cloth, 50c. 



There is no recent American book on silo building, and none of 
any date that covers the many types of silos now in use and gives 
details of their construction. Mr. King here presents to the intended 
builder the principles of silo construction, and the advantages and dis- 
advantages of each type; but more particularly he gives the actual 
method of construction, with the main points of silo management. 



RULES OF ORDER FOR EVERY DAY USE 

AND CIVIL GOVERNMENT MADE PLAIN 

By HENRY SLADE GOFF, Author of the Gaff's. Historical Maps. 



113 pages, illustrated, cloth, 50c, 

There has long been a demand for an accurate Rules of Order text 
that was brief yet sufficiently complete for all practical needs. This 
is such a book. The matter is so clear, so well arranged, and so suc- 
cinct that those interested in social centers, clubs, societies, etc., will 
be delighted with it. The book also presents the main points of civil 
government that everyone ought to know. 



